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Welcome to HOW IT WORKS BOOK OF THE ELEMENTS

Since ancient times, scientists and philosophers have attempted to discover, classify and synthesise the Earth’s elements. Now, thanks to the hard work of dedicated individuals, we have the periodic table: the ultimate guide to the elements, organised by atomic number and electron configuration. In the How It Works Book Of The Elements, we introduce you to the basics of elements and compounds, as well as taking a more in-depth look at the history of key discoveries. Every known element on the planet is covered in detail, from lanthanoids to actinoids, alkali metals to transition metals, and halogens to noble gases. You’ll find everything you need to know about the universe’s building blocks right here.…

Welcome to HOW IT WORKS BOOK OF THE ELEMENTS

An introduction to the elements

“Modern physics and chemistry have reduced the complexity of the sensible world to an astonishing simplicity.” – Carl Sagan Elements, compounds and mixtures Most familiar substances are mixtures or compounds. Wood, steel, air, salt, concrete, skin, water, plastics, glass, wax – these are all mixtures or compounds, made up of more than one element. We do encounter elements in our everyday life, albeit not completely pure. Gold and silver are good examples; and even in the purest sample of gold ever produced, one in every million atoms was an atom of an element other than gold. Copper (pipes), iron (railings), aluminium (foil) and carbon (as diamond) are further examples of elements we encounter in their fairly pure state. Some other elements are familiar simply because they are so important or commonplace. Oxygen, nitrogen,…

An introduction to the elements

Elements – a history

Ancient peoples were familiar with several of the substances that we now know as chemical elements. Some, such as gold, silver and sulfur, exist naturally in a relatively pure form; others, such as iron, copper and mercury, are easily extracted from minerals. But it was not until the end of the eighteenth century that scientists established the notion of what a chemical element actually is, and how that differs from a chemical compound. And it was the 1920s before all the naturally occurring elements had been discovered and isolated. Trying to make sense of the incredible diversity of matter must have been bewildering for ancient philosophers. In many early civilizations, philosophers deduced that all matter is made up of earth, air, fire and water, in varying mixtures. These were the “elements”…

Elements – a history

Hydrogen is the most abundant of all the elements, constituting more than 75 per cent of all ordinary matter in the Universe by mass (most of the mass of the Universe is “dark matter”, whose nature remains a mystery), and accounting for around 90 per cent of all atoms. Most of the hydrogen on Earth is in water molecules, but this element is also a crucial component in the molecules involved in the processes of life. Hydrogen may even replace fossil fuels as the main energy source in the future. Hydrogen is officially in Group 1 of the periodic table, but it is so different from the other Group 1 elements that it is generally considered in a category of its own. The single electron of a hydrogen atom half-fills an…

The Alkali Metals

In contrast with the uniqueness of hydrogen and the varied properties you find in some other groups of the periodic table, the alkali metals exhibit particularly strong family resemblances. All are solid, but soft, at room temperature; all are shiny metals that have to be kept under oil or in inert atmospheres because they are very reactive. With the exception of the radioactive and extremely rare francium, these shiny metals react rapidly with oxygen in the air, so that their surfaces quickly become dull. Their shininess is revealed again if you cut them with a knife. Caesium is the most chemically reactive of all the elements in this group, and spontaneously catches fire in air. The atoms of these elements all have just one electron in their outer shell (s1) – and…

The Alkali Metals

The Alkaline Earth Metals

The elements of Group 2 are less reactive versions of the Group 1 elements. Like their more excitable cousins, these elements react with water and acids, producing hydrogen gas. But while Group 1 elements react explosively with cold water and even spontaneously with air, these Group 2 elements only react with water if it is very hot. The lesser reactivity is due to the electron configuration: the atoms of these elements have two electrons in their outer shell, compared with just one for the Group 1 elements. Compared with its Group 1 equivalent, immediately to its left in the periodic table, each Group 2 element has an extra proton and an extra electron. The result is that the electrons are held more tightly and it takes more energy to remove them.…

The Alkaline Earth Metals

D-block and the transition metals

With just a glance at the periodic table, the middle section, containing Groups 3 to 12, stands out as being different. In particular, it has no elements in the first three periods – so it is not as tall as the block to its left (called the s-block) and the block to its right (the p-block). This misfit section, called the d-block, contains a host of versatile metallic elements with a wide variety of interesting compounds and uses. It includes some of the best known and most used metals, such as iron, gold, silver, copper and mercury. This next section of the book, between pages 44 and 91, is devoted to the d-block elements, group by group. However, the elements with atomic numbers 104 to 112, which are part of the…

D-block and the transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 21 ATOMIC RADIUS: 160 pm OXIDATION STATES: +1, +2, +3 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 44.96 MELTING POINT: 1,541ºC (2,806ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,836ºC (5,136ºF) DENSITY:2.99 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d1 4s2 Group 3 of the periodic table is made up of just two elements: scandium and yttrium. The two other spaces represent 16 elements each, comprising the 32 elements of the f-block. For more details, see pages 92–105. Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table in 1869 (see page 21). Mendeleev left several gaps, which he correctly supposed were as-yet undiscovered elements. Scandium was assigned to one of those gaps, after the element’s oxide was discovered by Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson, in 1879. Since it was detected in a mineral found only in Scandinavia, Nilson called the new element scandium. It was not until 1937 that this…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 22 ATOMIC RADIUS: 140 pm OXIDATION STATES: +2, +3, +4 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 47.87 MELTING POINT: 1,665ºC (3,029ºF) BOILING POINT: 3,287ºC (5,949ºF) DENSITY: 4.54 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 Group 4 of the periodic table includes three transition metal elements (see page 44) – titanium, zirconium and hafnium. It also includes the radioactive element rutherfordium, which is not found in nature and has an atomic number higher than uranium’s. Rutherfordium is therefore featured in the section on the transuranium elements, on page 169. “Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in Earth’s crust, and the fourth most abundant metal” In 1791, English amateur mineralogist Reverend William Gregor found some black sand near a stream. Gregor analysed the sand and found that it contained iron oxide and the oxide of another, unknown metal. Four years later, German chemist Martin…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 23 ATOMIC RADIUS: 135 pm OXIDATION STATES: -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 50.94 MELTING POINT: 1,910ºC (3,470ºF) BOILING POINT: 3,407ºC (6,165ºF) DENSITY: 6.10 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d3 4s2 The lightest of the Group 5 elements, vanadium, shares many properties with its two heavier relatives, niobium and tantalum. All three of these transition metals are hard, unreactive and resistant to wear and corrosion. More than 60 different minerals contain vanadium, which is the twenty-second most abundant element in Earth’s crust – more so than copper. Vanadium was discovered in 1801, then undiscovered and later rediscovered – and it had several names before its modern one was chosen. It was Spanish mineralogist Andres Manuel del Rio who first suggested the existence of this new element, after studying a red-brown lead ore, known today as vanadinite,…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 24 ATOMIC RADIUS: 140 pm OXIDATION STATES: -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 52.00 MELTING POINT: 1,860ºC (3,380ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,672ºC (4,840ºF) DENSITY: 7.19 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Group 6 of the periodic table includes two well-known metals – chromium and tungsten – and one less well-known metal, molybdenum. It also includes seaborgium, a radioactive element that does not exist naturally, and features in the section on the transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. Chromium – the twenty-first most abundant element in Earth’s crust – was discovered in 1797, by Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin, who also discovered beryllium. Vauquelin was investigating a bright orange mineral called red lead, which had been discovered in a mine in Siberia in the 1760s. He carried out various chemical investigations on the mineral, producing a range of intriguing…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 25 ATOMIC RADIUS: 140 pm OXIDATION STATES: -3, -2, -1, +1, +2,+3, +4, +5, +6, +7 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 54.94 MELTING POINT: 1,245ºC (2,273ºF) BOILING POINT: 1,962ºC (3,563ºF) DENSITY: 7.47 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Group 7 of the periodic table includes the elements manganese, technetium and rhenium. It also includes bohrium, an element that does not exist naturally and has an atomic number higher than uranium’s – and therefore features in the section on the transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. Manganese is the third most abundant transition metal in Earth’s crust, and the twelfth most abundant element overall. Like many transition metals, manganese is essential to all living things, although the amounts required are tiny. Many different enzymes rely upon manganese atoms for their proper functioning, including the “oxygen-evolving complex” that releases oxygen from water as…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 26 ATOMIC RADIUS: 140 pm OXIDATION STATES: -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 55.84 MELTING POINT: 1,535ºC (2,795ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,750ºC (4,980ºF) DENSITY: 7.87 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d6 4s2 The most important element of Group 8 of the periodic table is iron, but this group also includes the little-known elements ruthenium and osmium. It also includes the radioactive element hassium, which does not exist naturally and has an atomic number higher than uranium’s, and therefore features in the section on the transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. Iron is one of the most familiar of all the elements – in particular, when it is alloyed with carbon and other elements in the steel objects that surround us in everyday life. It was known to ancient metalworkers, and is one of the…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 27 ATOMIC RADIUS: 135 pm OXIDATION STATES: -1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 58.93 MELTING POINT: 1,495ºC (2,723ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,900ºC (5,250ºF) DENSITY: 8.85 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d7 4s2 Group 9 of the periodic table is populated by the transition metals cobalt, rhodium and iridium. The other element in this group, meitnerium, is unstable and radioactive and has an atomic number higher than uranium’s. It is therefore in the section on transuranium elements on pages 164–171. As a bulk element, cobalt is a shiny, hard metal similar in appearance and behaviour to its next-door neighbours in the periodic table: iron to the left and nickel to the right. These three are the only elements that are ferromagnetic (they can be magnetized and are attracted to a magnet) at room temperature. Ferromagnetic substances – compounds…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 28 ATOMIC RADIUS: 135 pm OXIDATION STATES: -1, +1, +2, +3, +4 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 58.69 MELTING POINT: 1,453ºC (2,647ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,730ºC (4,945ºF) DENSITY: 8.90 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d8 4s2 Group 10 of the periodic table includes the transition metals nickel, palladium and platinum. Also present is the element darmstadtium. Since it is unstable, radioactive and has an atomic number higher than uranium’s, darmstadtium features in the section on the transuranium elements (pages 164–171). “He managed to extract a whitish metal, which he called Kupfernickel” The element nickel is named after the same mythical goblinlike sprite of Germanic mythology as the element cobalt (see page 72) – albeit by an alternative name, Nickel. Miners in the German town of Schneeberg found a reddish-brown ore that appeared similar to copper ore, but it was difficult to handle and,…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 29 ATOMIC RADIUS: 135 pm OXIDATION STATES: +1, +2, +3, +4 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 63.55 MELTING POINT: 1,085ºC (1,985ºF) BOILING POINT: 2,656ºC (4,650ºF) DENSITY: 8.94 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d10 4s1 Group 11 of the periodic table includes three transition metal elements that often occur naturally in their “native” state, uncombined with other elements: copper, silver and gold. It also includes the radioactive element roentgenium, which is not found in nature, and which has an atomic number higher than uranium’s. Roentgenium is therefore featured in the section on transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. “The name copper is derived from Cuprum, Latin name for Cyprus, where the Romans mined most of their copper” Copper is the twentysixth most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Because it occurs as a native element, copper was known to ancient people; the oldest known artefacts…

The Transition metals

The Transition metals

ATOMIC NUMBER: 30 ATOMIC RADIUS: 135 pm OXIDATION STATES: +1, +2 ATOMIC WEIGHT: 65.39 MELTING POINT: 420ºC (787ºF) BOILING POINT: 907ºC (1,665ºF) DENSITY: 7.14 g/cm3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 Group 12 of the periodic table is the last of the transition metal groups, and the rightmost group of the d-block (see page 44). It contains three metals – zinc, cadmium and the only metal that is liquid at room temperature, mercury. It also includes the radioactive element copernicium, which is not found in nature, and which has an atomic number higher than that of uranium. Copernicium is therefore featured in the section on the transuranium elements, on pages 164-171. “Zinc is an essential element for all living things, and is found in a wide range of foods” The English word “zinc” comes from the German name for the metal,…

The Transition metals

F-block – the lanthanoids and the actinoids

In Group 3 of the periodic table, there appear to be two gaps – empty slots below element 39, yttrium. But these slots are far from empty: each contains fifteen elements! The “missing” elements are in a separate block – the f-block, which is normally found below the rest of the table but is, in a sense, part of Group 3. The next section of this book (pages 94 to 105) is devoted to the elements of the f-block. There are two rows in the f-block, with elements from Periods 6 and 7 of the periodic table. The elements in the top row, from Period 6, are the lanthanoids (pages 94 to 101), sometimes called lanthanides – named after the first of them, lanthanum. The elements of the lanthanoid series all…

F-block – the lanthanoids and the actinoids

The Lanthanoids

The elements of the lanthanoid series make up the first row of the f-block of the periodic table (see page 92). In their metallic form, lanthanoids are relatively soft metals that react vigorously with oxygen if left open to the air. No lanthanoids have any known biological role. The lanthanoids, together with scandium and yttrium (see page 46), are often referred to as the rare earth metals. The word “earths” in rare earths refers to metal oxides, and relates to the time when the existence of previously unknown metals could be inferred by identifying unfamiliar earths in minerals. The rare earth elements are not as rare as they were first thought to be, which is perhaps fortunate, for rare earths are playing ever more important roles in the modern world. They…

The Lanthanoids

All the actinoids are radioactive – their nuclei spontaneously disintegrate, releasing subatomic particles and transmuting into different elements. However, thorium and uranium have isotopes with half-lives long enough that quantities of these elements created in supernovas billions of years ago still persist here on Earth. Additionally, protactinium, neptunium and plutonium are found naturally in tiny amounts in uranium ores, their existence the result of the disintegration of uranium nuclei. Those elements of the actinoid series with atomic numbers higher than uranium’s were only discovered as a result of their being synthesized in nuclear reactors since the middle of the twentieth century. These elements feature with the other transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. In early versions of the periodic table – before most of the actinoids had been discovered or synthesized –…

The Boron Group

The best-known element of Group 13 is aluminium – one of the few we commonly encounter in elemental form (although aluminium foil and cans are only about 95 per cent aluminium). Boron, gallium, indium and thallium are less well known, but are not rare and have a variety of applications. This group also includes element 113, temporarily named “ununtrium” (1-1-3-ium) – see transuranium elements on pages 164–171. The atoms of all these elements have three electrons in their (incomplete) outer shell – two in an s-orbital and one in a p-orbital (see pages 10–11); they all have the electron configuration s2 p1. Since it is the outer, or valence, electrons that take part in chemical reactions and determine an element’s properties, you might expect these elements to be very similar. But…

The Boron Group

The Carbon Group

In their elemental state, the elements of Group 14 vary considerably: carbon is a black (or transparent, as diamond) non-metal; silicon and germanium are semiconducting metalloids; tin and lead are lustrous silvery metals. They form a wide variety of different compounds, and have an enormous range of applications. This group also includes element 114, flerovium (see the transuranium elements, on pages 164–171). All the elements of Group 14 have atoms with four electrons in their outer shell (see pages 10–11). Each element’s electron configuration ends with s2 p2. The part-filled outer electron shell leads to some interesting chemical properties – particularly for carbon. There is a tendency for the s- and p-orbitals to merge, forming sp3 and sp2 hybrid orbitals, which share the electrons more evenly around the nucleus and provide…

The Carbon Group

The Nitrogen Group

As is true for the elements of Group 14, the elements of Group 15 vary considerably in their properties – in this case, from the non-metals nitrogen and phosphorus, through the metalloids arsenic and antimony, to the “poor metal” bismuth. This group also includes element 115, which has the temporary name “ununpentium” (1-1-5-ium). Element 115 does not occur naturally, but has been created in nuclear laboratories; it features with the other transuranic elements, on pages 164–171. Nitrogen and phosphorus are extremely important to all life on Earth, and as a result, are both essential ingredients in fertilizers. Nitrogen is a defining ingredient in all proteins and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); phosphorus is also a crucial part of DNA, and also of life’s system of energy “currency” – the two molecules ATP (adenosine…

The Nitrogen Group

The Oxygen Group

The most important and abundant elements of Group 16 of the periodic table are the nonmetals oxygen and sulfur. Selenium is also a non-metal, while tellurium is a metalloid. Polonium is sometimes considered a true metal, sometimes a metalloid. It is a radioactive element, with no stable isotopes. This group also includes livermorium, created in nuclear laboratories – see the transuranium elements, pages 164–171. The elements of Group 16 are sometimes referred to as “chalcogens”. The name derives from the Greek chalkos, meaning “bronze” or just “metal”; the elements oxygen and sulfur are present in nearly all metal ores. The atoms of these elements have six electrons in their outer shell, comprising two in an s-orbital and four in p-orbitals; each element’s electron configuration ends with s2 p4. Normally, having the…

The Oxygen Group

Unlike Groups 14, 15 and 16 of the periodic table, Group 17 is populated by elements that have very similar properties. They are all highly reactive non-metals that form singly charged negative ions and form similar compounds. Nevertheless, there are differences when these elements are pure: fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature, bromine is liquid and iodine is solid. These differences are mainly the result of increasing atomic mass down the group. Astatine also stands apart – it is very unstable and highly radioactive. This group also includes element 117, which has the temporary name “ununseptium” (1-1-7-ium). Element 117 does not occur naturally, but has been created in nuclear laboratories; it features with the other transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. The electron configuration for each of these elements ends…

The Noble Gases

The elements of Group 18 of the periodic table – the noble gases – are all very inert (unreactive) gases – although they can be made to form compounds, albeit only with difficulty. Radon, the heaviest naturally occurring noble gas, is highly radioactive. All of the naturally occurring elements of Group 18 were either discovered or first isolated by Scottish chemist William Ramsay. This group also includes element 118, which has the temporary name “ununoctium” (1-1-8-ium). Element 118 does not occur naturally, but has been created in nuclear laboratories; it features with the other transuranium elements, on pages 164–171. The inertness of the noble gases is explained by the fact that all these elements have filled electron shells; this is also why they appear at the extreme right-hand end of the…

The Noble Gases

The Transuranium elements

A transuranium element is any element with an atomic number greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms (see page 10) – so every uranium atom has 92 protons in its nucleus. Until the 1930s, scientists supposed that uranium was the heaviest element that could exist. But advances in the understanding and technology of nuclear physics have led to the artificial creation of transuranium elements in laboratories, nuclear reactors, nuclear explosions and particle accelerators. As of 2012, 26 transuranium elements – with atomic numbers from 93 to 118 – had been created. Six of them (93 to 98) have also been found occurring naturally, in tiny quantities, inside ores…

The Transuranium elements

Every effort has been made to acknowledge correctly and contact the source and/or copyright holder of each picture, and we apologise for any unintentional errors or omissions, which will be corrected in future editions of this book. The majority of photographs were supplied by Science Photo Library with the exception of the page 51. (left) Intel, 62. (left) Getty Images/Joe Raedle, 113. (top right) Thinkstock, 115 (bottom left) Thinkstock/Comstock, 116. Thinkstock/Digital Vision, 143. (bottom right) Getty Images/Natasja Weitsz, 147. (bottom right) Gore-Tex. Science Photo Library contributor acknowledgements: 16. Shelia Terry, 20 & 21. Ria Novosti, 22. Adam Block, 23. (top) Tony Craddock, (bottom left) Martyn F. Chillmaid, (bottom) Pasieka, 24. (top) US Navy, (top left) Kenneth Eward/Biografx, (bottom) AJ Photo, 25. (top) Martin Bond, (bottom) US Department of Energy, 27. (bottom) Eye…

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