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93 Articles

Power to the people

An estimated 107 billion people have ever lived, and yet only a very few are recognisable by a single name – Plato, Cleopatra, Michelangelo, Pelé, Napoleon. These are people who have truly made history. It says much about our cover star that his own arch-rival, the Duke of Wellington, said that the Emperor of France was worth 40,000 men. Few men, after all, could rise from humble beginnings to conquer much of Europe; even fewer could escape from exile and do it all over again. His remarkable rise and fall (and rise and fall) begins on page 24. History is packed with big names, of course, but none of them exist outside the context of their times. So this issue, we set our sights on some scintillating societies. We travel to…

Power to the people

Power to the people

An estimated 107 billion people have ever lived, and yet only a very few are recognisable by a single name – Plato, Cleopatra, Michelangelo, Pelé, Napoleon. These are people who have truly made history. It says much about our cover star that his own arch-rival, the Duke of Wellington, said that the Emperor of France was worth 40,000 men. Few men, after all, could rise from humble beginnings to conquer much of Europe; even fewer could escape from exile and do it all over again. His remarkable rise and fall (and rise and fall) begins on page 24. History is packed with big names, of course, but none of them exist outside the context of their times. So this issue, we set our sights on some scintillating societies. We travel…

Power to the people

1937 HOLD THE RING During a routine drill, a fireman in Lambeth casually steps off a high roof as his colleagues wait below, holding a trampoline-like device to break his fall. The ‘jumping sheet’ was intended to save the lives of people trapped in burning buildings up to six stories high. However, in reality they often did the opposite. At a hotel fire in Amsterdam in 1977, some guests threw their luggage onto the sheet before jumping, while others hit the rim, resulting in a number of casualties. They were phased out in the 1980s. 1935 OLD SPORT The winner of the 1935 Wimbledon men’s singles contest, Fred Perry, leaps over the net to shake hands with his rival, Gottfried von Cramm. With northern, working-class roots, the Englishman was initially…

1937 HOLD THE RING During a routine drill, a fireman in Lambeth casually steps off a high roof as his colleagues wait below, holding a trampoline-like device to break his fall. The ‘jumping sheet’ was intended to save the lives of people trapped in burning buildings up to six stories high. However, in reality they often did the opposite. At a hotel fire in Amsterdam in 1977, some guests threw their luggage onto the sheet before jumping, while others hit the rim, resulting in a number of casualties. They were phased out in the 1980s. 1935 OLD SPORT The winner of the 1935 Wimbledon men’s singles contest, Fred Perry, leaps over the net to shake hands with his rival, Gottfried von Cramm. With northern, working-class roots, the Englishman was initially cold-shouldered by the…

“I READ THE NEWS TODAY...”

FASHION FIRST 1853 BLOOMER GIVES A SPEECH IN TROUSERS Rejecting the tight-fitting corsets of the day, women’s rights advocate Amelia Bloomer began wearing loose blouses, knee-length skirts and baggy trousers . Though she didn’t create the style, they came to be known as ‘ bloomers’ by association. THE CRAB NEBULA At its heart lies a neutron star 19km in diameter, but with the mass of our Sun . SHANGHAI SUPERNOVA 1054 GUEST STAR SPOTTED Chinese astronomers noted the sudden appearance of a super bright ‘guest’ star. Shining six times as brightly as Venus, it was visible to the naked eye for almost two years. Modern astronomers have identified the sighting as a supernova , a star’s explosive death. Its remnants now form the Crab Nebula . ARSENIC AND OLD LACE 1675 AFFAIR OF THE POISONS ROCKS FRANCE After aristocrat Madame…

“I READ THE NEWS TODAY...”

“I READ THE NEWS TODAY...”

FASHION FIRST 1853 BLOOMER GIVES A SPEECH IN TROUSERS Rejecting the tight-fitting corsets of the day, women’s rights advocate Amelia Bloomer began wearing loose blouses, knee-length skirts and baggy trousers . Though she didn’t create the style, they came to be known as ‘ bloomers’ by association. THE CRAB NEBULA At its heart lies a neutron star 19km in diameter, but with the mass of our Sun . SHANGHAI SUPERNOVA 1054 GUEST STAR SPOTTED Chinese astronomers noted the sudden appearance of a super bright ‘guest’ star. Shining six times as brightly as Venus, it was visible to the naked eye for almost two years. Modern astronomers have identified the sighting as a supernova , a star’s explosive death. Its remnants now form the Crab Nebula . ARSENIC AND OLD LACE…

“I READ THE NEWS TODAY...”

“…OH BOY”

21 JULY AD 365 THE EARTH MOVES An earthquake in Crete causes a Mediterranean tsunami, allegedly destroying Alexandria, a city founded in 332 BC by Alexander the Great. 15 JULY 1381 REVOLTING PEASANT Peasants’ Revolt leader John Ball is hanged, drawn and quartered in the presence of King Richard II. 7 JULY 1520 CONQUISTADOR CONQUERS Hernán Cortés and the Tlaxcalans defeat a numerically superior Aztec force in the Battle of Otumba, Mexico. 11 JULY 1900 SMASHED IT Charlotte Cooper of England beats Hélène Prévost of France to become the first female Olympic tennis champion (the first individual female Olympic champion in any sport). 1 JULY 1908 SAVE OUR SOULS Morse code prosign ‘SOS’ becomes the universal distress signal. The letters are deemed easiest to transmit in an emergency. 30 JULY…

“…OH BOY”

21 JULY AD 365 THE EARTH MOVES An earthquake in Crete causes a Mediterranean tsunami, allegedly destroying Alexandria, a city founded in 332 BC by Alexander the Great. 15 JULY 1381 REVOLTING PEASANT Peasants’ Revolt leader John Ball is hanged, drawn and quartered in the presence of King Richard II. 7 JULY 1520 CONQUISTADOR CONQUERS Hernán Cortés and the Tlaxcalans defeat a numerically superior Aztec force in the Battle of Otumba, Mexico. 11 JULY 1900 SMASHED IT Charlotte Cooper of England beats Hélène Prévost of France to become the first female Olympic tennis champion (the first individual female Olympic champion in any sport). 1 JULY 1908 SAVE OUR SOULS Morse code prosign ‘SOS’ becomes the universal distress signal. The letters are deemed easiest to transmit in an emergency. 30 JULY 1935 LIGHT READS The first Penguin book is published, starting the paperback revolution. 26 JULY 1945 HANDS UP The Allies…

“THE NATION… CAN BE ORGANISED FOR PEACE AND LIFE” DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE

HOMES FOR ALL During the war, 30 per cent of British homes had been destroyed. Labour responded by building 700,000 council houses over the next six years. The 1945 election marked a watershed in British history. It was generally believed that Winston Churchill – the nation’s war hero – was unbeatable, just as David Lloyd George had been in 1918, following his leadership of the country in World War I. Yet Churchill was soundly defeated by Clement Attlee's Labour Party in the aftermath of World War II. When Labour's victory was announced on 26 July 1945 (three weeks after polling day, to enable those overseas in the forces to vote), it took the country by surprise. Labour had persuaded voters that it was the only party capable of building a…

“THE NATION… CAN BE ORGANISED FOR PEACE AND LIFE” DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE

“THE NATION… CAN BE ORGANISED FOR PEACE AND LIFE” DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE

HOMES FOR ALL During the war, 30 per cent of British homes had been destroyed. Labour responded by building 700,000 council houses over the next six years. The 1945 election marked a watershed in British history. It was generally believed that Winston Churchill – the nation’s war hero – was unbeatable, just as David Lloyd George had been in 1918, following his leadership of the country in World War I. Yet Churchill was soundly defeated by Clement Attlee's Labour Party in the aftermath of World War II. When Labour's victory was announced on 26 July 1945 (three weeks after polling day, to enable those overseas in the forces to vote), it took the country by surprise. Labour had persuaded voters that it was the only party capable of building a post-war world, via…

“THE NATION… CAN BE ORGANISED FOR PEACE AND LIFE” DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE

1945 ALSO IN THE NEWS…

6 JULY Frank Forde became prime minister of Australia when the incumbent died in office. He was in office for just eight days, making him the most shortlived PM in Australian history. 22 JULY Art treasures worth an estimated $500 million, which had been looted by the Nazis during the war, were returned to two grateful galleries in Florence, Italy, by the US Army. 28 JULY A B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into New York’s Empire State Building during heavy fog. The structure withstood the hit, but three on board and 11 people in the building died.…

1945 ALSO IN THE NEWS…

6 JULY Frank Forde became prime minister of Australia when the incumbent died in office. He was in office for just eight days, making him the most shortlived PM in Australian history. 22 JULY Art treasures worth an estimated $500 million, which had been looted by the Nazis during the war, were returned to two grateful galleries in Florence, Italy, by the US Army. 28 JULY A B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into New York’s Empire State Building during heavy fog. The structure withstood the hit, but three on board and 11 people in the building died.…

1527 BIRTH OF JOHN DEE, THE ORIGINAL 007

“Elizabeth I wanted information about her enemies and needed a spy – the well-travelled and loyal Dr Dee was her man” HERO OR HERETIC? In 1555, Dee was charged with heresy for casting horoscopes for Queen Mary and Princess Elizabeth. This charge was later increased to treason, but he managed to exonerate himself. DIVINE POWER The edge of the disc is inscribed with the ‘full name of God’ (72 Latin letters), while the heptagram contains the names of the seven archangels . It was believed to give the magician power over all creatures. Who was John Dee? Unlike his contemporaries Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake and William Shakespeare (who is said to have based the magician Prospero in The Tempest on Dee) – who are securely bookmarked in our catalogue of British history –…

1527 BIRTH OF JOHN DEE, THE ORIGINAL 007

1527 BIRTH OF JOHN DEE, THE ORIGINAL 007

“Elizabeth I wanted information about her enemies and needed a spy – the well-travelled and loyal Dr Dee was her man” HERO OR HERETIC? In 1555, Dee was charged with heresy for casting horoscopes for Queen Mary and Princess Elizabeth. This charge was later increased to treason, but he managed to exonerate himself. DIVINE POWER The edge of the disc is inscribed with the ‘full name of God’ (72 Latin letters), while the heptagram contains the names of the seven archangels . It was believed to give the magician power over all creatures. Who was John Dee? Unlike his contemporaries Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake and William Shakespeare (who is said to have based the magician Prospero in The Tempest on Dee) – who are securely bookmarked in our…

1527 BIRTH OF JOHN DEE, THE ORIGINAL 007

1967 SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT IS PASSED

TIMELINE The road to equality in the UK 1102 The Archbishop of Canterbury denounces homosexuality as a sin for the first time, but punishments are rare, as counseling is preferred 1533 Henry VIII passes the Buggery Act, making all male-male activity punishable by death 1680 The marriage of Arabella Hunt (right) and ‘James Howard’ is annulled, after it is discovered that Howard is in fact a woman 1866 Marriage is legally defined as being between one man and one woman, preventing any future same-sex marriages 1861 The death penalty for buggery is abolished 1835 James Pratt and John Smith are hanged after they are caught having sex in a private room. They are the last to be executed for buggery in Britain 1785 Philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham becomes one of the first people to argue for the decriminalisation of sodomy 1724 Margaret Clap opens her first…

1967 SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT IS PASSED

1967 SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT IS PASSED

TIMELINE The road to equality in the UK 1102 The Archbishop of Canterbury denounces homosexuality as a sin for the first time, but punishments are rare, as counseling is preferred 1533 Henry VIII passes the Buggery Act, making all male-male activity punishable by death 1680 The marriage of Arabella Hunt (right) and ‘James Howard’ is annulled, after it is discovered that Howard is in fact a woman 1866 Marriage is legally defined as being between one man and one woman, preventing any future same-sex marriages 1861 The death penalty for buggery is abolished 1835 James Pratt and John Smith are hanged after they are caught having sex in a private room. They are the last to be executed for buggery in Britain 1785 Philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham becomes one…

1967 SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT IS PASSED

“THOSE WHO SUFFER FROM THIS DISABILITY CARRY A GREAT WEIGHT OF SHAME ALL THEIR LIVES”

DID YOU KNOW? LADIES ONLY Lesbianism has never actually been illegal in the UK. The laws banning illicit sexual activity only ever referred to male homosexuality. GLOBAL LAWS AGAINST HOMOSEXUALITY How the world looked in 2016 1972 Seven hundred people march in Britain’s first Gay Pride Rally in London 1980 The decriminalisation of private homosexual acts comes into force in Scotland, followed by Northern Ireland two years later 1983 Britain reports 17 cases of AIDS. Gay men are asked not to donate blood as a result 1988 Margaret Thatcher’s government introduces Section 28, which st›tes a local authority “shall not promote homosexuality” or “promote the teaching… of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship” 1994 The age of consent for male homosexual acts is reduced to 18 2001 The age of consent is lowered to 16, despite rejection in the House of Lords 2002 Same-sex couples…

“THOSE WHO SUFFER FROM THIS DISABILITY CARRY A GREAT WEIGHT OF SHAME ALL THEIR LIVES”

“THOSE WHO SUFFER FROM THIS DISABILITY CARRY A GREAT WEIGHT OF SHAME ALL THEIR LIVES”

DID YOU KNOW? LADIES ONLY Lesbianism has never actually been illegal in the UK. The laws banning illicit sexual activity only ever referred to male homosexuality. GLOBAL LAWS AGAINST HOMOSEXUALITY How the world looked in 2016 1972 Seven hundred people march in Britain’s first Gay Pride Rally in London 1980 The decriminalisation of private homosexual acts comes into force in Scotland, followed by Northern Ireland two years later 1983 Britain reports 17 cases of AIDS. Gay men are asked not to donate blood as a result 1988 Margaret Thatcher’s government introduces Section 28, which st›tes a local authority “shall not promote homosexuality” or “promote the teaching… of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship” 1994 The age of consent for male homosexual acts is reduced to 18 2001…

“THOSE WHO SUFFER FROM THIS DISABILITY CARRY A GREAT WEIGHT OF SHAME ALL THEIR LIVES”

1953 CASTRO’S FAILED REVOLUTION

PEOPLE’S HERO In an attempt to humiliate the rebels, Batista ensured that Castro’s trial was highly publicised . However, Batista inadvertently gave Castro the publicity he wanted, generating a wave of new Communist supporters. FLYING THE FLAG The flag of the 26 July Movement – a black-and-red banner with a ‘26’ emblem in the middle – has become the definitive symbol for the Comminist Party of Cuba . The military also wears an armband with a similar design. As the Sun rose on the city of Santiago de Cuba, around 150 men (and two women) led by Fidel Castro set off for the Moncada Barracks – a base of government troops – with revolution in mind. Although sheer audacity was not enough to secure victory that day, they unleashed a…

1953 CASTRO’S FAILED REVOLUTION

1953 CASTRO’S FAILED REVOLUTION

PEOPLE’S HERO In an attempt to humiliate the rebels, Batista ensured that Castro’s trial was highly publicised . However, Batista inadvertently gave Castro the publicity he wanted, generating a wave of new Communist supporters. FLYING THE FLAG The flag of the 26 July Movement – a black-and-red banner with a ‘26’ emblem in the middle – has become the definitive symbol for the Comminist Party of Cuba . The military also wears an armband with a similar design. As the Sun rose on the city of Santiago de Cuba, around 150 men (and two women) led by Fidel Castro set off for the Moncada Barracks – a base of government troops – with revolution in mind. Although sheer audacity was not enough to secure victory that day, they unleashed a chain of events that…

1953 CASTRO’S FAILED REVOLUTION

NAPOLEON THE RISE AND FALL OF A DICTATOR

“THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON DESCRIBED NAPOLEON AS BEING WORTH 40,000 MEN” DIVIDED LOYALTIES Napoleon's supporters on his home island of Corsica were split between those supporting the French Revolution and those seeking independence from being ruled by Paris. NEW ORDER In 1799, spotting the frailty of the French government, Napoleon and his comrades returned to Paris and non-violently seized power , installing himself as First Consul. CORONATION TREAT This coin commemorates Napoleon becoming emperor in 1804. He crowned himself to symbolise he had earned the position on merit, not through religious approval. THE GREAT ESCAPE? There were numerous plans to spring Napoleon from captivity . An Irishman called Tom Johnson claimed that, in 1820, he was offered £40,000 to rescue him from Saint Helena in a curious plot involving a primitive submarine. Each day at Longwood House was not…

NAPOLEON THE RISE AND FALL OF A DICTATOR

NAPOLEON THE RISE AND FALL OF A DICTATOR

“THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON DESCRIBED NAPOLEON AS BEING WORTH 40,000 MEN” DIVIDED LOYALTIES Napoleon's supporters on his home island of Corsica were split between those supporting the French Revolution and those seeking independence from being ruled by Paris. NEW ORDER In 1799, spotting the frailty of the French government, Napoleon and his comrades returned to Paris and non-violently seized power , installing himself as First Consul. CORONATION TREAT This coin commemorates Napoleon becoming emperor in 1804. He crowned himself to symbolise he had earned the position on merit, not through religious approval. THE GREAT ESCAPE? There were numerous plans to spring Napoleon from captivity . An Irishman called Tom Johnson claimed that, in 1820, he was offered £40,000 to rescue him from Saint Helena in a curious plot involving a…

NAPOLEON THE RISE AND FALL OF A DICTATOR

ITALY CAMPAIGN, 1796-97 In a lightning-quick campaign, Napoleon swept aside an alliance that had stood against the French since 1792. Despite finding his soldiers poorly equipped and outnumbered when he arrived in Italy in March 1796, he went on the attack, splitting the Austrian and Sardinian armies in his first battle and knocking out the forces of Piedmont by the end of April. Napoleon maintained the offensive with an unbroken string of victories, including the decisive Battle of Rivoli in January 1797, where the Austrians lost 14,000 men to France’s 5,000. The Austrians gave up as Napoleon marched on Vienna, with the resulting Treaty of Campo Formio securing significant territorial gains in northern Italy. Napoleon returned to Paris both an undisputed national hero and an unmatched military tactician. AUSTERLITZ, 1805 On 2 December…

THE NAPOLEONIC CODE

Near the end of his life, Napoleon declared: “My real glory is not the 40 battles I won, for Waterloo’s defeat will destroy the memory of as many victories. What nothing will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil Code.” The Napoleonic Code replaced the confusing, contradictory and cluttered laws of pre-revolutionary France with a single, up-to-date set of laws. It took four years for the country’s top jurists – with the help of Napoleon himself – to draft its 2,281 articles. Enacted on 21 March 1804, the code concerns individual and group civil rights, as well as property rights compiled with a mix of liberalism and conservatism. So while all male citizens were granted equal rights, the code established women, in keeping with the general law of the time,…

THE NAPOLEONIC CODE

ITALY CAMPAIGN, 1796-97 In a lightning-quick campaign, Napoleon swept aside an alliance that had stood against the French since 1792. Despite finding his soldiers poorly equipped and outnumbered when he arrived in Italy in March 1796, he went on the attack, splitting the Austrian and Sardinian armies in his first battle and knocking out the forces of Piedmont by the end of April. Napoleon maintained the offensive with an unbroken string of victories, including the decisive Battle of Rivoli in January 1797, where the Austrians lost 14,000 men to France’s 5,000. The Austrians gave up as Napoleon marched on Vienna, with the resulting Treaty of Campo Formio securing significant territorial gains in northern Italy. Napoleon returned to Paris both an undisputed national hero and an unmatched military tactician. AUSTERLITZ, 1805…

THE NAPOLEONIC CODE

Near the end of his life, Napoleon declared: “My real glory is not the 40 battles I won, for Waterloo’s defeat will destroy the memory of as many victories. What nothing will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil Code.” The Napoleonic Code replaced the confusing, contradictory and cluttered laws of pre-revolutionary France with a single, up-to-date set of laws. It took four years for the country’s top jurists – with the help of Napoleon himself – to draft its 2,281 articles. Enacted on 21 March 1804, the code concerns individual and group civil rights, as well as property rights compiled with a mix of liberalism and conservatism. So while all male citizens were granted equal rights, the code established women, in keeping with the general law of the…

THE NAPOLEONIC CODE

RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN, 1812 Napoleon and a colossal army crossed the Neman River on 24 June 1812 to intimidate Russia, but it turned out to be the undoing of his empire. The Russians, under Mikhail Kutuzov, systematically retreated and scorched the earth, which dragged the French deep into their territory. Then, when the sides did do battle – a pyrrhic victory at Borodino on 7 September – it was the bloodiest›day of Napoleon’s career. The French entered Moscow a week later, only to find it evacuated (Russians also set parts of the city on fire to deprive the invaders of shelter and supplies). The retreat ended up being even more costly. Soldiers had insufficient clothing for the freezing temperatures of an early winter, disease devastated the ranks, and Russian forces pursued them…

NAPOLEON IN NUMBERS

15 It's thought that Napoleon wrote, on average, 15 letters a day. He also wrote a romantic novel, Clisson et Eugénie about a soldier and his lover. Napoleon used to be engaged to a woman named Eugénie. 7 Of the 60 battles that Napoleon fought, he lost only seven. These included Aspern-Essling in 1809 (the first time he personally lost as emperor), Leipzig in 1813, which facilitated his first abdication, and, of course, Waterloo. 2,281 The number of articles in the Civil Code. Before its enactment in 1804, France was bound to a chaotic heap of laws, causing Voltaire to remark: “A man that travels in this country changes his law almost as often as he changes his horses.” 156 The number of infantry regiments in the Grande Armée. Napoleon split his forces…

NAPOLEON IN NUMBERS

RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN, 1812 Napoleon and a colossal army crossed the Neman River on 24 June 1812 to intimidate Russia, but it turned out to be the undoing of his empire. The Russians, under Mikhail Kutuzov, systematically retreated and scorched the earth, which dragged the French deep into their territory. Then, when the sides did do battle – a pyrrhic victory at Borodino on 7 September – it was the bloodiest›day of Napoleon’s career. The French entered Moscow a week later, only to find it evacuated (Russians also set parts of the city on fire to deprive the invaders of shelter and supplies). The retreat ended up being even more costly. Soldiers had insufficient clothing for the freezing temperatures of an early winter, disease devastated the ranks, and Russian forces pursued…

10 CONQUERORS TO RIVAL NAPOLEON

SARGON OF AKKAD 2334-2279 BC Considered to be probably the first empire builder in history, he conquered most of Mesopotamia. He was the founder of the Sargonic dynasty, which ruled the Akkadian Empire for a century after his death. CYRUS THE GREAT 550-29 BC He founded the largest empire the world had seen and established such a strong political infrastructure in his conquered lands that it endured long after his death as the Persian Empire. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 336-23 BC By the time he was 30, the King of Macedonia conquered Greece, defeated the Persians and reached India, all without losing a battle. More than 20 cities are named after him. ATTILA THE HUN AD 434-53 Another name bestowed to the barbarian ruler is ‘Scourge of God’. His hordes left destruction and death as they plundered the…

10 CONQUERORS TO RIVAL NAPOLEON

NAPOLEON IN NUMBERS

15 It's thought that Napoleon wrote, on average, 15 letters a day. He also wrote a romantic novel, Clisson et Eugénie, about a soldier and his lover. Napoleon used to be engaged to a woman named Eugénie. 7 Of the 60 battles that Napoleon fought, he lost only seven. These included Aspern-Essling in 1809 (the first time he personally lost as emperor), Leipzig in 1813, which facilitated his first abdication, and, of course, Waterloo. 2,281 The number of articles in the Civil Code. Before its enactment in 1804, France was bound to a chaotic heap of laws, causing Voltaire to remark: “A man that travels in this country changes his law almost as often as he changes his horses.” 156 The number of infantry regiments in the Grande Armée. Napoleon…

NAPOLEON IN NUMBERS

10 CONQUERORS TO RIVAL NAPOLEON

SARGON OF AKKAD 2334-2279 BC Considered to be probably the first empire builder in history, he conquered most of Mesopotamia. He was the founder of the Sargonic dynasty, which ruled the Akkadian Empire for a century after his death. CYRUS THE GREAT 550-29 BC He founded the largest empire the world had seen and established such a strong political infrastructure in his conquered lands that it endured long after his death as the Persian Empire. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 336-23 BC By the time he was 30, the King of Macedonia conquered Greece, defeated the Persians and reached India, all without losing a battle. More than 20 cities are named after him. ATTILA THE HUN AD 434-53 Another name bestowed to the barbarian ruler is ‘Scourge of…

10 CONQUERORS TO RIVAL NAPOLEON

THIS IS SPARTA!

ELITE EARLY YEARS Pupils of the agoge were enrolled by a so-called ‘boy herder’ – a magistrate who handled the agoge’s strict admissions process. EGG THEM ON To toughen kids up, teachers would take advantage of pupils’ petty disputes , and manipulate children to attack each other. LIFE GOALS Children of both genders were encouraged to take part in competitive games and sports . This came in useful, as Spartans were respected athletes at the Olympics. KEEPING IT PROFESSIONAL? Spartan teenagers were encouraged to have elder male mentors, as it would pass on knowledge. There were often sexual relations between pairs. “Infirm infants would be ceremoniously tossed into a chasm at the foot of Mount Taygetus” King Leonidas was not one to be crossed. As the leader of Sparta, a…

THIS IS SPARTA!

THIS IS SPARTA!

ELITE EARLY YEARS Pupils of the agoge were enrolled by a so-called ‘boy herder’ – a magistrate who handled the agoge’s strict admissions process. EGG THEM ON To toughen kids up, teachers would take advantage of pupils’ petty disputes , and manipulate children to attack each other. LIFE GOALS Children of both genders were encouraged to take part in competitive games and sports . This came in useful, as Spartans were respected athletes at the Olympics. KEEPING IT PROFESSIONAL? Spartan teenagers were encouraged to have elder male mentors, as it would pass on knowledge. There were often sexual relations between pairs. “Infirm infants would be ceremoniously tossed into a chasm at the foot of Mount Taygetus” King Leonidas was not one to be crossed. As the leader of Sparta, a notorious Greek city-state, he had gained a reputation as…

THIS IS SPARTA!

8TH CENTURY BC H Lycurgus, the arguably mythical Spartan leader, builds the kingdom into a unified military society, under the instruction of the Oracle at Delphi. 7TH CENTURY BC The newly reformed society successfully invades its neighbours, Messenia, and enslaves its populace. This creates the first helots, and their descendants are also destined to be slaves. 550 BC During an attempt to conquer Arcadia, the Spartans are so confident of victory that they bring chains, to shackle their new slaves, with them. However, they lose, and the chains are put on display in Arcadia for centuries. 494 BC Spartan king Cleomenes tries to invade Argos. Though he fails to take the city itself, he defeats its people, and may have burned 5,000 of them to death. He is tried in his home city for impiety, but is…

8TH CENTURY BC H Lycurgus, the arguably mythical Spartan leader, builds the kingdom into a unified military society, under the instruction of the Oracle at Delphi. 7TH CENTURY BC The newly reformed society successfully invades its neighbours, Messenia, and enslaves its populace. This creates the first helots, and their descendants are also destined to be slaves. 550 BC During an attempt to conquer Arcadia, the Spartans are so confident of victory that they bring chains, to shackle their new slaves, with them. However, they lose, and the chains are put on display in Arcadia for centuries. 494 BC Spartan king Cleomenes tries to invade Argos. Though he fails to take the city itself, he defeats its people, and may have burned 5,000 of them to death. He is tried in…

Whilst Spartan men and women were busy keeping fit and eating with their compatriots, the slaves (known as helots) kept the city-state afloat. Originally from Messenia, Sparta’s conquered neighbours, the helots farmed the land, tended to the house, and sometimes looked after the children. In exchange for their labour, they were fed and housed, and occasionally allowed to keep their own Messenian customs and dress. Slavery became so prevalent in ancient Sparta that the helots outnumbered Spartans by seven to one in 479 BC. After the first helot revolts, the slaves were seen as a constant threat to the social structure of Sparta. In retaliation, the Ephors decreed that the poor helots were to be annually culled, so the fearsome Crypteia picked off the smart and strong ones in the dead…

Unlike in other Greek cities, women in Sparta received a state-sponsored education, which expressed the importance of physical fitness and motherhood. The ever-pragmatic Spartans also allowed women to wear short tunics during exercise, and even to drive their own chariots. They also possessed more rights than other Greek women – they were possibly permitted to divorce their husbands, and could own their own property. In fact, women owned over a third of all Spartan land. Thanks to the hardworking slaves, they were liberated from mundane housework chores, so women had the time to practise gymnastics and manage their property. Marriage in Sparta was also uncharacteristic of Greece. Women were married relatively late, aged 20 (as opposed to the beginning of puberty), the theory being that healthier children could be born. Since many…

Whilst Spartan men and women were busy keeping fit and eating with their compatriots, the slaves (known as helots) kept the city-state afloat. Originally from Messenia, Sparta’s conquered neighbours, the helots farmed the land, tended to the house, and sometimes looked after the children. In exchange for their labour, they were fed and housed, and occasionally allowed to keep their own Messenian customs and dress. Slavery became so prevalent in ancient Sparta that the helots outnumbered Spartans by seven to one in 479 BC. After the first helot revolts, the slaves were seen as a constant threat to the social structure of Sparta. In retaliation, the Ephors decreed that the poor helots were to be annually culled, so the fearsome Crypteia picked off the smart and strong ones in the…

Unlike in other Greek cities, women in Sparta received a state-sponsored education, which expressed the importance of physical fitness and motherhood. The ever-pragmatic Spartans also allowed women to wear short tunics during exercise, and even to drive their own chariots. They also possessed more rights than other Greek women – they were possibly permitted to divorce their husbands, and could own their own property. In fact, women owned over a third of all Spartan land. Thanks to the hardworking slaves, they were liberated from mundane housework chores, so women had the time to practise gymnastics and manage their property. Marriage in Sparta was also uncharacteristic of Greece. Women were married relatively late, aged 20 (as opposed to the beginning of puberty), the theory being that healthier children could be born.…

THE WORLD OF JANE AUSTEN

“I am not at all in a humour for writing; I must write on till I am”Jane Austen, in a letter to her sister Cassandra Published anonymously and poorly known during her lifetime, by the early Victorian period Jane Austen was hopelessly outdated. Charlotte Brontë, admittedly Austen’s literary polar opposite, spent several letters describing her dislike of a world she saw as prim, proper and up-tight, “shrewd and observant” but whose “carefully fenced and highly cultivated gardens” saw “no glimpse of a bright, vivid physiognomy, no open country, no fresh air”. Austen’s detractors remain, yet this summer, exactly 200 years since her death, hers will be the publicly endorsed face of the new ten-pound note. Subject of movies, books, TV, radio, graphic novels, apps, tourist trails, games, Bollywood-style reboots – even soft…

THE WORLD OF JANE AUSTEN

After a 50-year reign, King George III was declared unfit to rule in 1810, due to his struggle with mental illness. In his stead, his unpopular son, the future George IV, was appointed by Parliament to become the de facto regent – hence ‘Regency’. Though his father was still alive, Prince George would make all the important political decisions and duties of the King. However, once he possessed the throne in 1820, George’s interest in politics declined. Disliked by both the British public and the government, the King thought it best to leave the managing of state affairs to the Prime Minister, establishing the long-standing tradition of Parliament having ultimate sovereignty. Instead, the new King focused his energies on style and fashion, and the Regency era continued the decadent traditions of…

WOMEN IN GEORGIAN ENGLAND

For many years, feminists disapproved of Jane Austen’s work as supporting a paternalistic status quo. More recently, her writing has been re-evaluated as slyly poking at paternalism in a time when overt methods would be dismissed. To be a woman in Regency England meant being ruled by men. A good marriage was, for most, their only option – they were handed from their fathers’ care into their husbands’. Any money or property went to their spouse upon marriage, so the only women with autonomy tended to be wealthy widows sensible enough not to remarry. Austen knew what it was like to be a gentleman’s daughter with a decent lifestyle and nice house who, when her father died, was technically homeless, living on the charity of (male) relatives. No wonder her heroines…

WOMEN IN GEORGIAN ENGLAND

THE REGENCY ERA’S MOST ELIGIBLE BACHELORS

Since jobs and professions were usually a no-go for the upper classes, there were only a few careers open to cash-strapped male aristocrats. One of these was the clergy, since the church was very respectable – and the heart of country society. Practically everyone went to church, for gossip if not for salvation, and the vicarage was usually one of the best homes in a village. A parish was a ‘benefice’ or ‘living’ rather than a ‘calling’, usually appointed by the landowner. It was often reserved for younger sons of landed gentry, who would not inherit the family estate. A woman looking for a husband with a secure future would do well to marry a local clergyman. Austen had a sharp eye for clergymen. Mr Collins in Pride and Prejudice and…

THE REGENCY ERA’S MOST ELIGIBLE BACHELORS

THE WORLD OF JANE AUSTEN

“I am not at all in a humour for writing; I must write on till I am” Jane Austen, in a letter to her sister Cassandra Published anonymously and poorly known during her lifetime, by the early Victorian period Jane Austen was hopelessly outdated. Charlotte Brontë, admittedly Austen’s literary polar opposite, spent several letters describing her dislike of a world she saw as prim, proper and up-tight, “shrewd and observant” but whose “carefully fenced and highly cultivated gardens” saw “no glimpse of a bright, vivid physiognomy, no open country, no fresh air”. Austen’s detractors remain, yet this summer, exactly 200 years since her death, hers will be the publicly endorsed face of the new ten-pound note. Subject of movies, books, TV, radio, graphic novels, apps, tourist trails, games, Bollywood-style reboots…

THE WORLD OF JANE AUSTEN

Austen uses changing details in Regency fashion as cyphers. Her ‘sillier’ characters are obsessed with ribbons and bows, bonnets and dresses, and for good reason. Women had to make themselves look marriageable, which is why Elizabeth Bennet causes such consternation when she tramps through the mud to visit her sister and arrives at Netherfield with a dirty hem. Dress was political, too. Empire lines originated in France, with whom Britain was at war. The look harked back to a different empire, though – that of the Romans, fashionable due to the continuing discovery of treasures at Pompeii. Grace and ‘naturalness’ was everything. Dresses were getting flimsier and flimsier, but men’s clothes were just as figure-hugging – frock coats and wigs had given way to cut-away waistcoats, trousers and tight breeches that left…

After a 50-year reign, King George III was declared unfit to rule in 1810, due to his struggle with mental illness. In his stead, his unpopular son, the future George IV, was appointed by Parliament to become the de facto regent – hence ‘Regency’. Though his father was still alive, Prince George would make all the important political decisions and duties of the King. However, once he possessed the throne in 1820, George’s interest in politics declined. Disliked by both the British public and the government, the King thought it best to leave the managing of state affairs to the Prime Minister, establishing the long-standing tradition of Parliament having ultimate sovereignty. Instead, the new King focused his energies on style and fashion, and the Regency era continued the decadent traditions…

5 MUST-VISIT PLACES FROM THE NOVELS

Bath The elegant city of Bath has long been a popular destination. In the Regency era, the city took on a new lease of life as a fashionable and social hub for the rich and famous – staying at the iconic Royal Crescent, and nattering about one another at the Assembly Rooms. London The bustle of the capital was attractive to many members of rural society. Known as going ‘into town’, London was a place where aspirational folk had the chance to mingle with the upper echelons of society. Much of the Georgian architecture still remains. Derbyshire and the Peak District Fresh air was important to the good health of wealthy people in Austen’s time, and the picturesque Peak District was the ideal place to get it. Littered with aristocratic mansions, the area is home…

5 MUST-VISIT PLACES FROM THE NOVELS

WOMEN IN GEORGIAN ENGLAND

For many years, feminists disapproved of Jane Austen’s work as supporting a paternalistic status quo. More recently, her writing has been re-evaluated as slyly poking at paternalism in a time when overt methods would be dismissed. To be a woman in Regency England meant being ruled by men. A good marriage was, for most, their only option – they were handed from their fathers’ care into their husbands’. Any money or property went to their spouse upon marriage, so the only women with autonomy tended to be wealthy widows sensible enough not to remarry. Austen knew what it was like to be a gentleman’s daughter with a decent lifestyle and nice house who, when her father died, was technically homeless, living on the charity of (male) relatives. No wonder her…

WOMEN IN GEORGIAN ENGLAND

GROWING UP WITH THE TROUBLES

AT A GLANCE Northern Ireland had been a hotbed of pressure ever since it was separated from the Irish Free State in 1922. Seeking to stay that way, the largely Protestant Unionists (or Loyalists) swore allegiance to the United Kingdom. On the other side were the Republicans, who wished to reunite with Catholic Ireland. The split between the two groups divided the province of Ulster down the middle, and society became deeply segregated. “THIS IS LIMBO LAND AT BEST, AND AT WORST THE COUNTRY OF THE DAMNED.”SEAMUS HEANEY, POET“IF WE WANT TO REAP THE HARVEST OF PEACE AND JUSTICE, WE HAVE TO SOW THE SEEDS OF NONVIOLENCE”MAIREAD CORRIGAN MAGUIRE, PEACE ACTIVIST BRUNO BARBEY/MAGNUM PHOTOS X1, REX/SHUTTERSTOCK X1, TOPFOTO X3. GETTY IMAGES X4, REX/SHUTTERSTOCK X3, TOPFOTO X1. GILLES PERESS/MAGNUM PHOTOS X1, LEONARD FREED/MAGNUM PHOTOS…

GROWING UP WITH THE TROUBLES

THE REGENCY ERA’S MOST ELIGIBLE BACHELORS

Since jobs and professions were usually a no-go for the upper classes, there were only a few careers open to cash-strapped male aristocrats. One of these was the clergy, since the church was very respectable – and the heart of country society. Practically everyone went to church, for gossip if not for salvation, and the vicarage was usually one of the best homes in a village. A parish was a ‘benefice’ or ‘living’ rather than a ‘calling’, usually appointed by the landowner. It was often reserved for younger sons of landed gentry, who would not inherit the family estate. A woman looking for a husband with a secure future would do well to marry a local clergyman. Austen had a sharp eye for clergymen. Mr Collins in Pride and Prejudice…

THE REGENCY ERA’S MOST ELIGIBLE BACHELORS

Austen uses changing details in Regency fashion as cyphers. Her ‘sillier’ characters are obsessed with ribbons and bows, bonnets and dresses, and for good reason. Women had to make themselves look marriageable, which is why Elizabeth Bennet causes such consternation when she tramps through the mud to visit her sister and arrives at Netherfield with a dirty hem. Dress was political, too. Empire lines originated in France, with whom Britain was at war. The look harked back to a different empire, though – that of the Romans, fashionable due to the continuing discovery of treasures at Pompeii. Grace and ‘naturalness’ was everything. Dresses were getting flimsier and flimsier, but men’s clothes were just as figure-hugging – frock coats and wigs had given way to cut-away waistcoats, trousers and tight breeches…

THE SEEDS OF CONFLICT

TAKING TO THE STREETS Across Northern Ireland in the late 1960s, citizens protest against the religious discrimination that Catholics encounter in many aspects of life, such as housing and emplo yment. POLICE BRUTALITY In Derry/Londonderry, close to the border with the Republic of Ireland, violence breaks out in October 1968. Police surround the protestors, beat them and injure more than 100 people. RESTRICTED AREA On one march on 2 November 1968, demonstrators are blocked from entering Derry city centre at Ferryquay Gate. Though the march was initially meant to consist of 15 people, over 2,000 attend.…

THE SEEDS OF CONFLICT

5 MUST-VISIT PLACES FROM THE NOVELS

Bath The elegant city of Bath has long been a popular destination. In the Regency era, the city took on a new lease of life as a fashionable and social hub for the rich and famous – staying at the iconic Royal Crescent, and nattering about one another at the Assembly Rooms. London The bustle of the capital was attractive to many members of rural society. Known as going ‘into town’, London was a place where aspirational folk had the chance to mingle with the upper echelons of society. Much of the Georgian architecture still remains. Derbyshire and the Peak District Fresh air was important to the good health of wealthy people in Austen’s time, and the picturesque Peak District was the ideal place to get it. Littered with aristocratic…

5 MUST-VISIT PLACES FROM THE NOVELS

IN PICTURES BATTLE THE OF BERLIN THE BOGSIDE, 196 WALL 9

UP IN SMOKE During August 1969, tensions between Catholics and the Ulster police culminated in the Battle of the Bogside. In this scene, riot police and protestors face off outside the Rossville flats, as fires rage from the improvised bombs hurled off the roof. CALL TO ARMS Petrol bombs, stones and shrapnel are thrown at armoured police vehicles as protestors defend their barricade, using only dustbin lids to protect them from police bullets. STAGING AN INTER VENTION British troops are sent in to stop the fighting, the first direct intervention by the British Army since the partition of Ireland in 1922. 52 HISTORYREVEALED.COM…

IN PICTURES BATTLE THE OF BERLIN THE BOGSIDE, 196 WALL 9

MARCH FOR FREEDOM What begins as a peaceful demonstration on 30 January 1972 ends in death when the 1st Parachute Regiment attacks protestors with rubber bullets, gas and w ater cannon. FIGHT OR FLIGHT When some protestors throw stones at the paratroopers, they open fire. Many of those shot are running away from police, or trying to help others who have been wounded. REMAINS OF THE DAY A total of 14 people (many of them teenagers) are killed by the armed forces. The incident causes international outcry, the British Embassy in Dublin is brought down, and support for the IRA increases dramatically.…

JOHN FRANKLIN MYSTERY, MADNESS & CANNIBALISM

“Ultimately, more people died during the search for Franklin and his crew than were lost in their initial disappearance” One of the world’s most intriguing naval mysteries revolves around the fate of two ships – HMS Erebus and HMS Terror – that disappeared in 1845, with the loss of all 129 crew, while on an expedition to find the fabled Northern Passage. It was the biggest loss of life in the already-horror-sodden quest for the trade route, and the enigma has echoed through time, with the ghostly reemergence of the vessels in recent years, and voices from the dead forcing historians to revise their version of events not once, but twice. The leader of the mission, the thrice-knighted Sir John Franklin, was so well regarded in naval circles he was promoted in absentia…

JOHN FRANKLIN MYSTERY, MADNESS & CANNIBALISM

GROWING UP WITH THE TROUBLES

AT A GLANCE Northern Ireland had been a hotbed of pressure ever since it was separated from the Irish Free State in 1922. Seeking to stay that way, the largely Protestant Unionists (or Loyalists) swore allegiance to the United Kingdom. On the other side were the Republicans, who wished to reunite with Catholic Ireland. The split between the two groups divided the province of Ulster down the middle, and society became deeply segregated. “THIS IS LIMBO LAND AT BEST, AND AT WORST THE COUNTRY OF THE DAMNED.” SEAMUS HEANEY, POET “IF WE WANT TO REAP THE HARVEST OF PEACE AND JUSTICE, WE HAVE TO SOW THE SEEDS OF NONVIOLENCE” MAIREAD CORRIGAN MAGUIRE, PEACE ACTIVIST…

GROWING UP WITH THE TROUBLES

THE SEEDS OF CONFLICT

TAKING TO THE STREETS Across Northern Ireland in the late 1960s, citizens protest against the religious discrimination that Catholics encounter in many aspects of life, such as housing and emplo yment. POLICE BRUTALITY In Derry/Londonderry, close to the border with the Republic of Ireland, violence breaks out in October 1968. Police surround the protestors, beat them and injure more than 100 people. RESTRICTED AREA On one march on 2 November 1968, demonstrators are blocked from entering Derry city centre at Ferryquay Gate. Though the march was initially meant to consist of 15 people, over 2,000 attend.…

THE SEEDS OF CONFLICT

THE MAIN PLAYERS

SIR JOHN FRANKLIN A knight of three separate orders and recipient of the Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie, Franklin had an extraordinary naval career and was Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania). JANE GRIFFIN Better known as Lady Franklin, Sir John’s redoubtable second spouse successfully led demands for an extensive search for her husband and his men after their disappearance, and dedicated the rest of her life to finding out his fate. CAPTAIN FRANCIS CROZIER Crozier was a veteran of six exploratory expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic. He was executive officer and commander of HMS Terror under Franklin, until taking over leadership of the expedition. CAPTAIN JAMES FITZJAMES British naval officer and illegitimate son of Sir James Gambier. He was captain of HMS Erebus and, after the death of John Franklin, second-in-command to Captain…

THE MAIN PLAYERS

Accounts of the expedition veer into the choppy waters of informed conjecture after it leaves Lancaster Sound, because no one lived to tell the tale. However, in 1859, an overland expedition discovered a scrawled note, dated 25 April 1848, which until recently has remained the biggest single clue to the fate of Franklin and his men. Historians have used this and other pieces of evidence to compile a jigsaw image of events ever since. 1 19 MAY 1845 Greenhithe, England Franklin’s expedition sets sail, with four ships initially travelling up the coast of Scotland and stopping in Aberdeen and the Orkney Isles for supplies, before continuing to Greenland, where they prepare for their Arctic mission in Disko Bay. 2 26 JULY 1845 Lancaster Sound, Qikiqtaaluk Region, in modern-day Nunavut, Canada Franklin’s expedition is last seen by…

IN PICTURES BATTLE THE OF BERLIN THE BOGSIDE, 196 WALL 9

UP IN SMOKE During August 1969, tensions between Catholics and the Ulster police culminated in the Battle of the Bogside. In this scene, riot police and protestors face off outside the Rossville flats, as fires rage from the improvised bombs hurled off the roof. CALL TO ARMS Petrol bombs, stones and shrapnel are thrown at armoured police vehicles as protestors defend their barricade, using only dustbin lids to protect them from police bullets. STAGING AN INTER VENTION British troops are sent in to stop the fighting, the first direct intervention by the British Army since the partition of Ireland in 1922. 52 HISTORYREVEALED.COM…

IN PICTURES BATTLE THE OF BERLIN THE BOGSIDE, 196 WALL 9

MARCH FOR FREEDOM What begins as a peaceful demonstration on 30 January 1972 ends in death when the 1st Parachute Regiment attacks protestors with rubber bullets, gas and w ater cannon. FIGHT OR FLIGHT When some protestors throw stones at the paratroopers, they open fire. Many of those shot are running away from police, or trying to help others who have been wounded. REMAINS OF THE DAY A total of 14 people (many of them teenagers) are killed by the armed forces. The incident causes international outcry, the British Embassy in Dublin is brought down, and support for the IRA increases dramatically.…

Greatest partnerships

LEWIS & CLARK HEROIC NEW WORLD EXPLORERS Meriwether Lewis and William Clark met in 1803 as two of the “nine young men” enlisted by President Thomas Jefferson for his Corps of Discovery expedition, which would explore the Missouri River and find a direct route to the Pacific. They set off for the adventure of a lifetime, exploring the Rocky Mountains and discovering 300 species unknown to science, encountering 50 Native American tribes (not all were friendly), and surviving a grizzly bear attack. Given up for dead, when they finally returned home in 1806, they were welcomed as heroes. ROLLS & ROYCE DRIVING AMBITION Engineer Frederick Henry Royce built his first motor car in 1904. Later that year, he was introduced to Charles Rolls. It was a match made in motoring heaven. Rolls had a company…

Greatest partnerships

FIREFIGHT Monmouth wanted his men to rush the royalist camp, but in fact they stopped and opened fire. MATCHLOCK The musket was fired by depressing the trigger to bring a piece of smouldering match in contact with some gunpowder in the musket’s pan. The resulting flash ignited the main gunpowder charge in the musket, causing an explosion that propelled the musket ball out of the barrel. There was no moon and the fields of Sedgemoor were shrouded with fog, but had you been there that night you would have soon realised that something was afoot. From time to time, the moor echoed with the sound of hoofbeats as small groups of horsemen rode urgently to and fro, while those with sharp eyes might have just caught a glimpse through the mist of the packed…

JOHN FRANKLIN MYSTERY, MADNESS & CANNIBALISM

“Ultimately, more people died during the search for Franklin and his crew than were lost in their initial disappearance” One of the world’s most intriguing naval mysteries revolves around the fate of two ships – HMS Erebus and HMS Terror – that disappeared in 1845, with the loss of all 129 crew, while on an expedition to find the fabled Northern Passage. It was the biggest loss of life in the already-horror-sodden quest for the trade route, and the enigma has echoed through time, with the ghostly reemergence of the vessels in recent years, and voices from the dead forcing historians to revise their version of events not once, but twice. The leader of the mission, the thrice-knighted Sir John Franklin, was so well regarded in naval circles he was…

JOHN FRANKLIN MYSTERY, MADNESS & CANNIBALISM

THE MAIN PLAYERS

SIR JOHN FRANKLIN A knight of three separate orders and recipient of the Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie, Franklin had an extraordinary naval career and was Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania). JANE GRIFFIN Better known as Lady Franklin, Sir John’s redoubtable second spouse successfully led demands for an extensive search for her husband and his men after their disappearance, and dedicated the rest of her life to finding out his fate. CAPTAIN FRANCIS CROZIER Crozier was a veteran of six exploratory expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic. He was executive officer and commander of HMS Terror under Franklin, until taking over leadership of the expedition. CAPTAIN JAMES FITZJAMES British naval officer and illegitimate son of Sir James Gambier. He was captain of HMS Erebus and, after the…

THE MAIN PLAYERS

WILD WEST PIONEERS OF DISCOVERY

The modern American West is one of the world’s great centres for scientific activity. Silicon Valley in California, for example, has long been home to the innovators of the information age. But when we think of the West of old, we tend to think of gunfights, cattle rustling, stagecoach robberies and all manner of other curiosities. However, alongside the outlaws, gunslingers, gold prospectors and saloon owners were pioneers of a different kind. As well as its legendary love affair with criminality and violence, the Wild West was a hotbed of scientific discovery, with characters every bit as adventurous as their gun-toting counterparts. “King was a geek with a penchant for flamboyance, wearing deerskin trousers and violet gloves” BOLD EXPLORER One such individual was geologist Clarence King, who studied physics, geology and applied chemistry…

WILD WEST PIONEERS OF DISCOVERY

EMILY BRAND Social historian, genealogist and author of Mr Darcy’s Guide to Courtship (2013) ADAM JACOT DE BOINOD Author and journalist, worked on the BBC panel game QI JULIAN HUMPHRYS Development Officer for The Battlefields Trust and author SANDRA LAWRENCE Writer and columnist, with a specialist interest in British heritage subjects RUPERT MATTHEWS Author on a range of historical subjects, from ancient to modern MILES RUSSELL Author and senior lecturer in prehistoric and Roman archaeology at Bournemouth University NOW SEND US YOUR QUESTIONS Fascinated by Sacagawea? Did the Glorious Revolution live up to its name? Whatever your thoughts, send them in. @Historyrevmag #askhistrevmag www.facebook.com/HistoryRevealed editor@historyrevealed.com…

Accounts of the expedition veer into the choppy waters of informed conjecture after it leaves Lancaster Sound, because no one lived to tell the tale. However, in 1859, an overland expedition discovered a scrawled note, dated 25 April 1848, which until recently has remained the biggest single clue to the fate of Franklin and his men. Historians have used this and other pieces of evidence to compile a jigsaw image of events ever since. 1 19 MAY 1845 Greenhithe, England Franklin’s expedition sets sail, with four ships initially travelling up the coast of Scotland and stopping in Aberdeen and the Orkney Isles for supplies, before continuing to Greenland, where they prepare for their Arctic mission in Disko Bay. 2 26 JULY 1845 Lancaster Sound, Qikiqtaaluk Region, in modern-day Nunavut, Canada…

Who was Hadrian , who built the wall? 10 The percentage of the original wall that is visible today. Since Roman times, it has been removed, buried or destroyed. Born in AD 76, Hadrian became Roman emperor in AD 117 and reigned until his death almost 21 years later. The third of the so-called ‘Five Good Emperors’ credited with the most prosperous and progressive days of the empire, he was particularly notable for his efforts to unite the people under his rule through construction and architecture. Though he boasted no major military achievements, he travelled his realm extensively – including Germany, Africa, Greece, Syria and Egypt – and oversaw the construction of new public buildings and monuments. In Rome itself, he rebuilt the iconic Pantheon that survives today. Following his visit to…

Greatest partnerships

LEWIS & CLARK HEROIC NEW WORLD EXPLORERS Meriwether Lewis and William Clark met in 1803 as two of the “nine young men” enlisted by President Thomas Jefferson for his Corps of Discovery expedition, which would explore the Missouri River and find a direct route to the Pacific. They set off for the adventure of a lifetime, exploring the Rocky Mountains and discovering 300 species unknown to science, encountering 50 Native American tribes (not all were friendly), and surviving a grizzly bear attack. Given up for dead, when they finally returned home in 1806, they were welcomed as heroes. ROLLS & ROYCE DRIVING AMBITION Engineer Frederick Henry Royce built his first motor car in 1904. Later that year, he was introduced to Charles Rolls. It was a match made in motoring…

Greatest partnerships

FIREFIGHT Monmouth wanted his men to rush the royalist camp, but in fact they stopped and opened fire. MATCHLOCK The musket was fired by depressing the trigger to bring a piece of smouldering match in contact with some gunpowder in the musket’s pan. The resulting flash ignited the main gunpowder charge in the musket, causing an explosion that propelled the musket ball out of the barrel. There was no moon and the fields of Sedgemoor were shrouded with fog, but had you been there that night you would have soon realised that something was afoot. From time to time, the moor echoed with the sound of hoofbeats as small groups of horsemen rode urgently to and fro, while those with sharp eyes might have just caught a glimpse through the…

“The Cathar religion was branded heretical by the Roman Catholic Church” Who were the Cathars? Catharism was a Christian dualist movement (a religion based on a belief in two gods) that could be found across western Europe from the 11th century. The Languedoc, France, the Netherlands and various German states were among those with a Cathar presence at this time and the religion is thought to have travelled via trade routes from the Byzantine Empire. What did they believe? According to the Cathar faith, there were two gods: a good god of the New Testament, who made the heavens and all immaterial things, including light and souls, and a bad god of the Old Testament, who had captured souls and imprisoned them in a human body. He was the god of material things, such…

WILD WEST PIONEERS OF DISCOVERY

The modern American West is one of the world’s great centres for scientific activity. Silicon Valley in California, for example, has long been home to the innovators of the information age. But when we think of the West of old, we tend to think of gunfights, cattle rustling, stagecoach robberies and all manner of other curiosities. However, alongside the outlaws, gunslingers, gold prospectors and saloon owners were pioneers of a different kind. As well as its legendary love affair with criminality and violence, the Wild West was a hotbed of scientific discovery, with characters every bit as adventurous as their gun-toting counterparts. “King was a geek with a penchant for flamboyance, wearing deerskin trousers and violet gloves” BOLD EXPLORER One such individual was geologist Clarence King, who studied physics, geology…

WILD WEST PIONEERS OF DISCOVERY

ON OUR RADAR What’s caught our attention this month… EVENT Scotland’s National Airshow 22 July, National Museum of Flight www.bit.ly/1YlQUdB Marvel at daredevil displays from the Red Arrows, as well as the Breitling Wingwalkers, an all-female team of biplane wingwalkers. Aircraft from the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight will take to the skies, as well as biplanes from the Royal Navy Historic Flight. On the ground, spectators can enjoy the revamped hangars and Concorde experience, as well as a load of traditional festival activities. EVENT Wars of the Roses Live! Warwick Castle, 22 July – 3 September www.bit.ly/2o42tti Experience this all-new, live-action show at Warwick Castle. Pledge your allegiance to the Lancastrian Tudors or the House of York, and watch the battle unfurl before your very eyes. An incredible array of jousting, stunts and special effects make this re-enactment…

BRITAIN’S TREASURES… CARDIFF CASTLE

GETTING THERE: By car – from the M4, exit junction 32 and follow the road to Cardiff city centre. By train – Cardiff Central is just ten minutes’ walk away. Look for the signs around the centre. “Its mythical looks hide a real history spanning 2,000 years” TIMES AND PRICES: Open seven days a week, all year from 9am. Last admission is 4-5pm.›Adults £12.50, children £9, Concessions £10.95. FIND OUT MORE: Call 029 2087 8100 or visit www.cardiffcastle.comthe Norman Lord of Gloucester, Robert Fitzhamon, one of William the Conqueror's followers – was an outstanding example of the classic motte-and-bailey fortification. site where the River Taff nears the Bristol Channel. Around AD 300, a new fort was built, with ten-feet-thick stone walls – some of which survive to this day – to protect the Empire…

BRITAIN’S TREASURES… CARDIFF CASTLE

Who was Hadrian , who built the wall? 10 The percentage of the original wall that is visible today. Since Roman times, it has been removed, buried or destroyed. Born in AD 76, Hadrian became Roman emperor in AD 117 and reigned until his death almost 21 years later. The third of the so-called ‘Five Good Emperors’ credited with the most prosperous and progressive days of the empire, he was particularly notable for his efforts to unite the people under his rule through construction and architecture. Though he boasted no major military achievements, he travelled his realm extensively – including Germany, Africa, Greece, Syria and Egypt – and oversaw the construction of new public buildings and monuments. In Rome itself, he rebuilt the iconic Pantheon that survives today. Following his…

WHAT TO LOOK FOR...

THE ROMAN WALL Cardiff Castle’s Roman past was hidden until 1888, when workmen discovered the remains of the Roman fort. Excavations indicate that this was the first of four forts. THE NORMAN KEEP Fifty steps up at the top of the keep, the views of Cardiff are breathtaking and, to the north, you can see as far as Castell Coch, seven miles away. THE TREBUCHET› The trebuchet at Cardiff Castle is a historically accurate replica of a 13th-century siege engine, developed to attack the solid stone walls of castles. THE ANIMAL WALL Alongside the castle runs the Animal Wall. Models of each animal were made for Lord Bute’s approval and two, including a sea horse, were rejected. WARTIME SHELTERS› Within the walls are tunnels that were used as air-raid shelters during World War II.›Ramps were built so people could…

WHAT TO LOOK FOR...

“Fighting to seize power, Douglas used everything at her disposal to achieve her aims” So High a Blood: The Life of Margaret, Countess of Lennox By Morgan Ring Bloomsbury, £14.99, 368 pages, hardback Religion, personal ambition and the relentless desire for an heir: three key forces of the Tudor period are here united in a biography of Margaret Douglas, half-sister of James V of Scotland. Fighting to seize power despite her uncle, Henry VIII, barring his Scottish relatives from the English throne, she used everything at her disposal to achieve her aims. As alliances shifted and Henry struggled to produce the male offspring he so longed for, Douglas emerges a complex, driven character. This is a fresh, very readable take on a period that continues to fascinate.…

EMILY BRAND Social historian, genealogist and author of Mr Darcy’s Guide to Courtship (2013) ADAM JACOT DE BOINOD Author and journalist, worked on the BBC panel game QI JULIAN HUMPHRYS Development Officer for The Battlefields Trust and author SANDRA LAWRENCE Writer and columnist, with a specialist interest in British heritage subjects RUPERT MATTHEWS Author on a range of historical subjects, from ancient to modern MILES RUSSELL Author and senior lecturer in prehistoric and Roman archaeology at Bournemouth University NOW SEND US YOUR QUESTIONS Fascinated by Sacagawea? Did the Glorious Revolution live up to its name? Whatever your thoughts, send them in. @Historyrevmag #askhistrevmag www.facebook.com/ HistoryRevealed editor@history revealed.com…

“The Cathar religion was branded heretical by the Roman Catholic Church” Who were the Cathars? Catharism was a Christian dualist movement (a religion based on a belief in two gods) that could be found across western Europe from the 11th century. The Languedoc, France, the Netherlands and various German states were among those with a Cathar presence at this time and the religion is thought to have travelled via trade routes from the Byzantine Empire. What did they believe? According to the Cathar faith, there were two gods: a good god of the New Testament, who made the heavens and all immaterial things, including light and souls, and a bad god of the Old Testament, who had captured souls and imprisoned them in a human body. He was the god…

MEET THE AUTHOR

What attracted you to writing about Margaret, Countess of Lennox? “She loved and hated with a passion that comes across in all her letters” Margaret transformed herself from naïve young poet shut up in the Tower of London because of a teenage romance, to noblewoman making political deals with the most powerful people in England, Scotland, and Europe – it’s a good story. Biography is also one of my favourite ways of writing history: we get not just a life, but a new, personal angle on life at court, Anglo-Scottish politics and the Reformation. What impression did you get of her personality? One of the first things we have a record of Margaret doing is escaping from Scotland and spending two lonely years in drafty border castles. But when she at last made it…

MEET THE AUTHOR

HOW DID THEY DO THAT? THE DREADNOUGHT

In 1906, Britain brought out the big guns. HMS Dreadnought was the first of a new class of battleship, representing such an advance in technology that an entire generation of ships came to be named after her. Unlike earlier classes, Dreadnought had a uniform main battery of large guns and was powered by steam turbines, making her the fastest battleship in the world. Immediately after her launch, navies scrabbled to compete, with the race intensifying in the lead-up to World War I.…

HOW DID THEY DO THAT? THE DREADNOUGHT

LETTER OF THE MONTH

“I think that it is likely the poor young princes died as a result of Richard’s direct actions” GAME OF THRONES As someone who is living in Leicester, Richard III hasn’t failed to escape my notice. Therefore, I found the piece by Julian Humphrys (May 2017) on his divisiveness timely as well as fascinating. I feel like people are still taking sides regarding the Battle of Bosworth, at times. I’d like to clarify that I am by no means a Ricardian, and think that it is likely that the poor young ‘princes in the tower’ probably died either as a result of Richard’s direct actions – or possibly his negligent inactions. However, I don’t think that makes him a terrible person, or even a bad king. One has to think about the historical…

LETTER OF THE MONTH

READERS’ LETTERS

DIG UP THE DEAD Some recent history news states that notorious Chicago serial killer H H Holmes is to be exhumed by relatives, to disprove the (in my opinion), silly theory that he escaped the hangman and lived the high life in South America, like every villain and Nazi before him. Has every bad guy from history fled into that southern continent’s sunset? Of course, a movie starring Leonardo di Caprio is in production, so maybe this gruesome grave digging will drum up attention for that. With so many unanswered questions on America’s first serial killer, I admit to being interested in uncovering further information on this twisted individual, but see this exhumation as nothing more than a publicity stunt for coming media attractions. Maybe a future issue will help fill…

READERS’ LETTERS

ON OUR RADAR What’s caught our attention this month… EVENT Scotland’s National Airshow 22 July, National Museum of Flight www.bit.ly/1YlQUdB Marvel at daredevil displays from the Red Arrows, as well as the Breitling Wingwalkers, an all-female team of biplane wingwalkers. Aircraft from the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight will take to the skies, as well as biplanes from the Royal Navy Historic Flight. On the ground, spectators can enjoy the revamped hangars and Concorde experience, as well as a load of traditional festival activities. EVENT Wars of the Roses Live! Warwick Castle, 22 July – 3 September www.bit.ly/2o42tti Experience this all-new, live-action show at Warwick Castle. Pledge your allegiance to the Lancastrian Tudors or the House of York, and watch the battle unfurl before your very eyes. An incredible array…

BRITAIN’S TREASURES… CARDIFF CASTLE

GETTING THERE: By car – from the M4, exit junction 32 and follow the road to Cardiff city centre. By train – Cardiff Central is just ten minutes’ walk away. Look for the signs around the centre. “Its mythical looks hide a real history spanning 2,000 years” TIMES AND PRICES: Open seven days a week, all year from 9am. Last admission is 4-5pm.›Adults £12.50, children £9, Concessions £10.95. FIND OUT MORE: Call 029 2087 8100 or visit www.cardiffcastle.com the Norman Lord of Gloucester, Robert Fitzhamon, one of William the Conqueror's followers – was an outstanding example of the classic motte-and-bailey fortification. site where the River Taff nears the Bristol Channel. Around AD 300, a new fort was built, with ten-feet-thick stone walls – some of which survive to this day –…

BRITAIN’S TREASURES… CARDIFF CASTLE

WHAT TO LOOK FOR...

THE ROMAN WALL Cardiff Castle’s Roman past was hidden until 1888, when workmen discovered the remains of the Roman fort. Excavations indicate that this was the first of four forts. THE NORMAN KEEP Fifty steps up at the top of the keep, the views of Cardiff are breathtaking and, to the north, you can see as far as Castell Coch, seven miles away. THE TREBUCHET› The trebuchet at Cardiff Castle is a historically accurate replica of a 13th-century siege engine, developed to attack the solid stone walls of castles. THE ANIMAL WALL Alongside the castle runs the Animal Wall. Models of each animal were made for Lord Bute’s approval and two, including a sea horse, were rejected. WARTIME SHELTERS› Within the walls are tunnels that were used as air-raid shelters…

WHAT TO LOOK FOR...

“Fighting to seize power, Douglas used everything at her disposal to achieve her aims” So High a Blood: The Life of Margaret, Countess of Lennox By Morgan Ring Bloomsbury, £14.99, 368 pages, hardback Religion, personal ambition and the relentless desire for an heir: three key forces of the Tudor period are here united in a biography of Margaret Douglas, half-sister of James V of Scotland. Fighting to seize power despite her uncle, Henry VIII, barring his Scottish relatives from the English throne, she used everything at her disposal to achieve her aims. As alliances shifted and Henry struggled to produce the male offspring he so longed for, Douglas emerges a complex, driven character. This is a fresh, very readable take on a period that continues to fascinate.…

MEET THE AUTHOR

What attracted you to writing about Margaret, Countess of Lennox? “She loved and hated with a passion that comes across in all her letters” Margaret transformed herself from naïve young poet shut up in the Tower of London because of a teenage romance, to noblewoman making political deals with the most powerful people in England, Scotland, and Europe – it’s a good story. Biography is also one of my favourite ways of writing history: we get not just a life, but a new, personal angle on life at court, Anglo-Scottish politics and the Reformation. What impression did you get of her personality? One of the first things we have a record of Margaret doing is escaping from Scotland and spending two lonely years in drafty border castles. But when she…

MEET THE AUTHOR

READERS’ LETTERS

DIG UP THE DEAD Some recent history news states that notorious Chicago serial killer H H Holmes is to be exhumed by relatives, to disprove the (in my opinion), silly theory that he escaped the hangman and lived the high life in South America, like every villain and Nazi before him. Has every bad guy from history fled into that southern continent’s sunset? Of course, a movie starring Leonardo di Caprio is in production, so maybe this gruesome grave digging will drum up attention for that. With so many unanswered questions on America’s first serial killer, I admit to being interested in uncovering further information on this twisted individual, but see this exhumation as nothing more than a publicity stunt for coming media attractions. Maybe a future issue will help…

READERS’ LETTERS

LETTER OF THE MONTH

“I think that it is likely the poor young princes died as a result of Richard’s direct actions” GAME OF THRONES As someone who is living in Leicester, Richard III hasn’t failed to escape my notice. Therefore, I found the piece by Julian Humphrys (May 2017) on his divisiveness timely as well as fascinating. I feel like people are still taking sides regarding the Battle of Bosworth, at times. I’d like to clarify that I am by no means a Ricardian, and think that it is likely that the poor young ‘princes in the tower’ probably died either as a result of Richard’s direct actions – or possibly his negligent inactions. However, I don’t think that makes him a terrible person, or even a bad king. One has to think…

LETTER OF THE MONTH

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