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98 Articles

Nothing says ‘season’s greetings’ quite like an angry Viking coming at you with an axe, does it? Sadly, he’s not offering it as a gift — rather he’s challenging you to trial by combat. This was just one of several ways Norse law allowed the warriors to settle disputes. You might also face banishment, walking on burning hot coals, or even certain death. However, the Vikings were not savages: most of their squabbles were settled through arbitration, while a jury of your peers would determine your sentence. The laws themselves did not come from on high either, but were voted on by the entire community. Face Viking justice from page 28. While our front cover may seem lacking in festive spirit, you will discover that the Vikings may have been partly…

Nothing says ‘season’s greetings’ quite like an angry Viking coming at you with an axe, does it? Sadly, he’s not offering it as a gift — rather he’s challenging you to trial by combat. This was just one of several ways Norse law allowed the warriors to settle disputes. You might also face banishment, walking on burning hot coals, or even certain death. However, the Vikings were not savages: most of their squabbles were settled through arbitration, while a jury of your peers would determine your sentence. The laws themselves did not come from on high either, but were voted on by the entire community. Face Viking justice from page 28. While our front cover may seem lacking in festive spirit, you will discover that the Vikings may have been…

Editor’s picks

Dragon Empress While other women have been appointed empress, Wu Zetian is the only one to have ruled China in her own right. Find out how she clawed her way to power. Battle of Sempach Explore step-by-step how a plucky Swiss militia forced the Medieval might that was the Austrian Habsburg dynasty out of their mountains. One’s best friend From the Queen’s obsession with corgis to the tiger Emperor Nero rescued from Rome’s fighting pits, discover the often deep relationships royals have with their pets.…

Editor’s picks

Dragon Empress While other women have been appointed empress, Wu Zetian is the only one to have ruled China in her own right. Find out how she clawed her way to power. Battle of Sempach Explore step-by-step how a plucky Swiss militia forced the Medieval might that was the Austrian Habsburg dynasty out of their mountains. One’s best friend From the Queen’s obsession with corgis to the tiger Emperor Nero rescued from Rome’s fighting pits, discover the often deep relationships royals have with their pets.…

HISTORY IN PICTURES

SREBRENICA MASSACRE A mother and daughter in a refugee shelter react to the news that the girl’s father died at Srebrenica. Over the course of five days in July 1995, the small town in Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the worst genocide in Europe since World War II. Serb forces separated Muslim men and boys from their families, then systematically murdered over 7,000 of them in the surrounding fields. 14 December marks the end of the Bosnian conflict. 1995 NYE IN NYC Even in 1942, New Yorkers saw in the New Year by watching the Times Square ball drop. Though the US joined World War II in 1941, it was only decided after 1942 that the ball shouldn’t be illuminated as it would make an easy target for enemy bombers. The iconic ball first…

HISTORY IN PICTURES

HISTORY IN PICTURES

SREBRENICA MASSACRE A mother and daughter in a refugee shelter react to the news that the girl’s father died at Srebrenica. Over the course of five days in July 1995, the small town in Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the worst genocide in Europe since World War II. Serb forces separated Muslim men and boys from their families, then systematically murdered over 7,000 of them in the surrounding fields. 14 December marks the end of the Bosnian conflict. 1995 NYE IN NYC Even in 1942, New Yorkers saw in the New Year by watching the Times Square ball drop. Though the US joined World War II in 1941, it was only decided after 1942 that the ball shouldn’t be illuminated as it would make an easy target for enemy bombers. The…

HISTORY IN PICTURES

Byzantine Empire

657 BCE BYZANTIUM IS BORN Greek colonists founded a city on the European side of the Bosporus Strait. Strategically placed between Europe and Asia Minor, Byzantium prospered, though the Greeks and Persians warred over it many times. 330 CE NEW ROME Emperor Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium to better manage its eastern frontiers. Endowed by his name, the new capital was rechristened Constantinople. 395 CE A PERMANENT SPLIT Upon the death of Emperor Theodosius I, his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, inherited the Eastern and the Western halves of the Roman Empire respectively. The empire would never be reunited. 424-43 CE PAYING THE HUNS 159KG Amount of gold the Byzantines paid the Huns annually to keep them at bay 318KG The tribute had doubled by 433 as Attila rose to power 952 KG The amount trebled…

Byzantine Empire

01 Squaring the circle What gives Hagia Sophia its beauty is the revolutionary way in which the architects created an immense open space. It is a dome built upon two semi-domes. In order to do this, it was necessary to ‘square the circle’, which means to build a circular dome upon the square base. Hagia Sophia was one of the first structures to make use of this technique. Byzantine paintings of six-winged angels called seraphs (Greek: hexapterygon) still line the pendentives. 02 The exterior adornments The four minarets were added separately over the centuries following the Ottoman Conquest in 1453. At 60 metres, the minarets are taller than the cupola — the highest part of the dome — which hovers effortlessly 55.6 metres above the beautiful marble inlaid floor. 03 A miracle of construction A…

Byzantine Empire

657 BCE BYZANTIUM IS BORN Greek colonists founded a city on the European side of the Bosporus Strait. Strategically placed between Europe and Asia Minor, Byzantium prospered, though the Greeks and Persians warred over it many times. 330 CE NEW ROME Emperor Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium to better manage its eastern frontiers. Endowed by his name, the new capital was rechristened Constantinople. 395 CE A PERMANENT SPLIT Upon the death of Emperor Theodosius I, his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, inherited the Eastern and the Western halves of the Roman Empire respectively. The empire would never be reunited. 424-43 CE PAYING THE HUNS 159KG Amount of gold the Byzantines paid the Huns annually to keep them at bay 318KG The tribute had…

Byzantine Empire

01 Squaring the circle What gives Hagia Sophia its beauty is the revolutionary way in which the architects created an immense open space. It is a dome built upon two semi-domes. In order to do this, it was necessary to ‘square the circle’, which means to build a circular dome upon the square base. Hagia Sophia was one of the first structures to make use of this technique. Byzantine paintings of six-winged angels called seraphs (Greek: hexapterygon) still line the pendentives. 02 The exterior adornments The four minarets were added separately over the centuries following the Ottoman Conquest in 1453. At 60 metres, the minarets are taller than the cupola — the highest part of the dome — which hovers effortlessly 55.6 metres above the beautiful marble inlaid floor. 03…

VARANGIAN GUARDSMAN

ELITE WARRIORS VIKINGS FOR HIRE Basil II formed the Varangian Guard in 988 to put down a rebellion. The force was made up of Rus warriors, the descendents of Vikings who had settled in modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Some straight-up Vikings also served in the Byzantine force, such as Harald Hardrada, who was a Varangian commander before reigning as king of Norway from 1046-66. Over time, the guards evolved from a band of unruly mercenaries to a loyal elite. BODYGUARDS THE EMPEROR’S SHIELD A lot more than a palace guard, the Varangians’ worth was fully utilised as a strike force in conflicts throughout the Byzantine Empire. Whether at the vanguard, protecting the emperor or baggage train, on the sea or the battlements during Constantinople’s many sieges, the Guard put their weapons, including their round shields,…

VARANGIAN GUARDSMAN

Chariot racing was the most popular spectator sport in the Byzantine Empire. Races took place in Constantinople’s Hippodrome circus, which could seat up to 100,000 people at once. Spectators from all classes, including the emperor, enjoyed the games as a distraction from their daily life while the racers themselves were normally slaves. The racers were divided into four team, which inspired the same fierce loyalty as modern football teams. In fact, fans of rival teams often brawled in the aisles. The races were also a prime opportunity for the emperor to present himself to the public, something that otherwise rarely occurred. PRE-GAME SHOW As the racers arrived to prepare for a day of competing, a wide array of entertainments were put on for the spectators to enjoy like wrestling, dancing, juggling, tightrope…

VARANGIAN GUARDSMAN

ELITE WARRIORS VIKINGS FOR HIRE Basil II formed the Varangian Guard in 988 to put down a rebellion. The force was made up of Rus warriors, the descendents of Vikings who had settled in modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Some straight-up Vikings also served in the Byzantine force, such as Harald Hardrada, who was a Varangian commander before reigning as king of Norway from 1046-66. Over time, the guards evolved from a band of unruly mercenaries to a loyal elite. BODYGUARDS THE EMPEROR’S SHIELD A lot more than a palace guard, the Varangians’ worth was fully utilised as a strike force in conflicts throughout the Byzantine Empire. Whether at the vanguard, protecting the emperor or baggage train, on the sea or the battlements during Constantinople’s many sieges, the Guard put their…

VARANGIAN GUARDSMAN

How to WIN A WAR WITH GREEK FIRE

Greek fire was the most feared weapon in Medieval warfare. An incendiary chemical, it would set fire spontaneously, stick to wood and flesh, and couldn’t be extinguished by water. While pitch and oil-soaked projectiles were used extensively in the Middle Ages, Greek fire was the sole preserve of the Byzantine Empire, its composition a closely guarded secret. It’s thought to have been invented in the 7th century by Jewish refugee Kallinikos of Heliopolis. Thrown in pots or pumped through tubes, it helped repulse many sieges on Constantinople. In fact, its deadliness has been cited as the reason for the empire’s long reign. Dragon head How do you make such a terrifying weapon even more frightening? Have it be spewed forth from the head of a mythical beast, of course, or at least from…

How to WIN A WAR WITH GREEK FIRE

Chariot racing was the most popular spectator sport in the Byzantine Empire. Races took place in Constantinople’s Hippodrome circus, which could seat up to 100,000 people at once. Spectators from all classes, including the emperor, enjoyed the games as a distraction from their daily life while the racers themselves were normally slaves. The racers were divided into four team, which inspired the same fierce loyalty as modern football teams. In fact, fans of rival teams often brawled in the aisles. The races were also a prime opportunity for the emperor to present himself to the public, something that otherwise rarely occurred. PRE-GAME SHOW As the racers arrived to prepare for a day of competing, a wide array of entertainments were put on for the spectators to enjoy like wrestling, dancing,…

4 FAMOUS… TIMES GREEK FIRE WAS USED

SIEGE OF THE CAPITAL 678 The besieging forces of the Umayyad Caliphate were the first to experience Greek fire when their navy was set ablaze. ARABIAN ATTACK 718 Despite a relentless invasion from Arab forces, Emperor Leo III’s navy were victorious thanks to Greek fire. THOMAS THE SLAV 822 Both sides had Greek fire at their disposal but it was the Emperor Michael II who used it best during the revolt of Thomas the Slav. WAR WITH THE RUS 941 Emperor Romanus I Lecapenus successfully defeated the invading Russian fleet at sea with his favourite fiery weapon.…

4 FAMOUS… TIMES GREEK FIRE WAS USED

Hall of Fame MURDEROUS RULERS

IRENE ISAURIAN DYNASTY C.752-803 Irene was thrust into a power when she became regent for her son, Constantine VI, after her husband’s sudden death in 780. She developed a taste for power and refused to relinquish control to her son for many years, who finally declared himself emperor in 790. Popular support allowed Irene to become Constantine’s co-ruler in 792 and by 797 she had successfully deposed him. Irene even had Constantine blinded to prevent him from returning to power. However, Irene’s desire to rule alone and refusal to remarry ultimately led to her downfall and deposition in 802. She died impoverished one year later. Although she reigned as a regent and co-emperor beforehand, Irene was the first female to rule the Byzantine Empire entirely by herself PHOCAS NON-DYNASTIC C.547-610 Phocas was a member of the…

Hall of Fame MURDEROUS RULERS

How to WIN A WAR WITH GREEK FIRE

Greek fire was the most feared weapon in Medieval warfare. An incendiary chemical, it would set fire spontaneously, stick to wood and flesh, and couldn’t be extinguished by water. While pitch and oil-soaked projectiles were used extensively in the Middle Ages, Greek fire was the sole preserve of the Byzantine Empire, its composition a closely guarded secret. It’s thought to have been invented in the 7th century by Jewish refugee Kallinikos of Heliopolis. Thrown in pots or pumped through tubes, it helped repulse many sieges on Constantinople. In fact, its deadliness has been cited as the reason for the empire’s long reign. Dragon head How do you make such a terrifying weapon even more frightening? Have it be spewed forth from the head of a mythical beast, of course, or…

How to
WIN A WAR WITH GREEK FIRE

4 FAMOUS… TIMES GREEK FIRE WAS USED

SIEGE OF THE CAPITAL 678 The besieging forces of the Umayyad Caliphate were the first to experience Greek fire when their navy was set ablaze. ARABIAN ATTACK 718 Despite a relentless invasion from Arab forces, Emperor Leo III’s navy were victorious thanks to Greek fire. THOMAS THE SLAV 822 Both sides had Greek fire at their disposal but it was the Emperor Michael II who used it best during the revolt of Thomas the Slav. WAR WITH THE RUS 941 Emperor Romanus I Lecapenus successfully defeated the invading Russian fleet at sea with his favourite fiery weapon.…

4 FAMOUS… TIMES GREEK FIRE WAS USED

HISTORY ANSWERS

Why did the Crusaders invade Constantinople? Eliot Issacs The Byzantine Empire was a Christian state, so it might seem odd that Crusaders sacked its capital in 1204 — in fact, it was regarded as a betrayal of principles out of greed. The Fourth Crusade were offered a reward by the exiled Byzantine prince Alexius if they put him on the throne. The Crusaders did so but the new emperor, now Alexius IV Angelus, was quickly murdered. The next ruler refused to pay the Crusaders, so they looted the city for three days straight, killing indiscriminately. What made Byzantine mosaics so special? Louise Thompson In Antiquity, most mosaics adorned floors so were usually made of stones that could withstand people walking on them. But the Byzantines put mosaics on their walls, so they could afford to…

HISTORY ANSWERS

THE RULES OF REVENGE VIKING JUSTICE

One vivid image of Viking raiders has endured over the centuries: rampant, bloodthirsty warriors emerging from their terrifying longships to ravage villages and towns, terrorising, killing without mercy and ransacking holy places of their precious and treasured possessions. To their terrified victims they were unruly savages, seemingly governed only by their thirst for battle and desire for gold and land. Yet behind the wild and uncontrollable image there lies a different story: men and women from an ordered society that had structure and a deeply rooted desire for fairness and justice. Punishments could be severely disproportionate to the crime — just calling someone a coward could see you have to fight them to the death — but the Viking legal system was based on a legislative assembly where all free men…

THE RULES OF REVENGE VIKING JUSTICE

Hall of Fame MURDEROUS RULERS

IRENE ISAURIAN DYNASTY C.752-803 Irene was thrust into a power when she became regent for her son, Constantine VI, after her husband’s sudden death in 780. She developed a taste for power and refused to relinquish control to her son for many years, who finally declared himself emperor in 790. Popular support allowed Irene to become Constantine’s co-ruler in 792 and by 797 she had successfully deposed him. Irene even had Constantine blinded to prevent him from returning to power. However, Irene’s desire to rule alone and refusal to remarry ultimately led to her downfall and deposition in 802. She died impoverished one year later. Although she reigned as a regent and co-emperor beforehand, Irene was the first female to rule the Byzantine Empire entirely by herself PHOCAS NON-DYNASTIC C.547-610…

Hall of Fame
MURDEROUS RULERS

HISTORY ANSWERS

Why did the Crusaders invade Constantinople? Eliot Issacs The Byzantine Empire was a Christian state, so it might seem odd that Crusaders sacked its capital in 1204 — in fact, it was regarded as a betrayal of principles out of greed. The Fourth Crusade were offered a reward by the exiled Byzantine prince Alexius if they put him on the throne. The Crusaders did so but the new emperor, now Alexius IV Angelus, was quickly murdered. The next ruler refused to pay the Crusaders, so they looted the city for three days straight, killing indiscriminately. What made Byzantine mosaics so special? Louise Thompson In Antiquity, most mosaics adorned floors so were usually made of stones that could withstand people walking on them. But the Byzantines put mosaics on their walls,…

HISTORY ANSWERS

DIVINE JUDGEMENT

The importance of stories and sagas, especially about the exploits of the gods, was deeply ingrained into Viking society. The tales inspired and guided them as to how they should live their lives. The story of Tyr and Fenrir is a good example of the Viking sense of justice. It was prophesised that the giant wolf Fenrir would devour the god Odin, so the gods set out to capture him. They instructed dwarves to create magical chains, each stronger than the last, to bind Fenrir, telling the wolf that they would test his strength. But upon seeing them, the cunning wolf became suspicious. Then Fenrir, son of the trickster god Loki, had an idea. He said that he would only allow himself to be bound if one of the gods placed their…

The memory man With no written laws, past laws and decisions would be memorised by a law-sayer, who would advise the chieftain and the jury as well as be part of the final decision. For and against Witnesses would be able to speak on behalf of or against the accused but sometimes only got involved for personal gain or to settle an old score. They would swear on a bloodied ring. In the dock With no laws against ‘the state’ as such, most trials were brought by one individual against another or their family regarding property, honour, or the breaking of an arrangement or oath. Voice of the people The size of the jury would vary depending on the seriousness of the crime, with 12, 24 or 36 men. All had to be free men and at…

THE RULES OF REVENGE VIKING JUSTICE

One vivid image of Viking raiders has endured over the centuries: rampant, bloodthirsty warriors emerging from their terrifying longships to ravage villages and towns, terrorising, killing without mercy and ransacking holy places of their precious and treasured possessions. To their terrified victims they were unruly savages, seemingly governed only by their thirst for battle and desire for gold and land. Yet behind the wild and uncontrollable image there lies a different story: men and women from an ordered society that had structure and a deeply rooted desire for fairness and justice. Punishments could be severely disproportionate to the crime — just calling someone a coward could see you have to fight them to the death — but the Viking legal system was based on a legislative assembly where all free…

THE RULES OF REVENGE VIKING JUSTICE

DIVINE JUDGEMENT

The importance of stories and sagas, especially about the exploits of the gods, was deeply ingrained into Viking society. The tales inspired and guided them as to how they should live their lives. The story of Tyr and Fenrir is a good example of the Viking sense of justice. It was prophesised that the giant wolf Fenrir would devour the god Odin, so the gods set out to capture him. They instructed dwarves to create magical chains, each stronger than the last, to bind Fenrir, telling the wolf that they would test his strength. But upon seeing them, the cunning wolf became suspicious. Then Fenrir, son of the trickster god Loki, had an idea. He said that he would only allow himself to be bound if one of the gods…

VICIOUS VIKING PUNISHMENTS

PAYING A FINE Everything has a price To the Vikings, everything and everyone had a price. When setting a fine for the guilty, a number of things would be taken into consideration such as the status of the individual and their ability to pay. They would also ensure that the amount was proportionate to the injustice done to the injured party. Quite often any fine would be split between the injured party, the local community and the chieftain or king, but was open to corruption. TRIAL BY FIRE Prove your innocence In later years, after being converted to Christianity, Vikings could face trial by fire. This could take the form of walking across hot coals, carrying heated rocks or plunging hands into boiling water to pick out a hot iron. Should the wounds be clean…

VICIOUS VIKING PUNISHMENTS

FIGHT FOR YOUR RIGHTS

For a society that had so much pride and honour at stake, Viking Age disputes could just as often be settled by a test of arms. Before the ritualised duelling of holmgang took off, Norsemen could settle their differences in a far less formal type of smackdown known as einvigi. With no rules or set weapons, no moderators and no set arena, einvigi (meaning ‘single combat’) could be called to settle beef or establish fault in some dispute, and offered a release valve from the self-destructive patterns of feud, raid and retaliation that could destroy whole communities. If someone was killed in a duel, their family would be paid weregeld (‘man price’) in compensation and the matter was considered settled. In an attempt to curb this bloodshed, the holmgang (meaning ‘island-going’) was…

FIGHT FOR YOUR RIGHTS

The memory man With no written laws, past laws and decisions would be memorised by a law-sayer, who would advise the chieftain and the jury as well as be part of the final decision. For and against Witnesses would be able to speak on behalf of or against the accused but sometimes only got involved for personal gain or to settle an old score. They would swear on a bloodied ring. In the dock With no laws against ‘the state’ as such, most trials were brought by one individual against another or their family regarding property, honour, or the breaking of an arrangement or oath. Voice of the people The size of the jury would vary depending on the seriousness of the crime, with 12, 24 or 36 men. All…

VICIOUS VIKING PUNISHMENTS

PAYING A FINE Everything has a price To the Vikings, everything and everyone had a price. When setting a fine for the guilty, a number of things would be taken into consideration such as the status of the individual and their ability to pay. They would also ensure that the amount was proportionate to the injustice done to the injured party. Quite often any fine would be split between the injured party, the local community and the chieftain or king, but was open to corruption. TRIAL BY FIRE Prove your innocence In later years, after being converted to Christianity, Vikings could face trial by fire. This could take the form of walking across hot coals, carrying heated rocks or plunging hands into boiling water to pick out a hot iron.…

VICIOUS VIKING PUNISHMENTS

THE LAW OF THE LAND

Thingvellir, Iceland Established in 930, the Allthing was held in the Icelandic region of Thingvellir for 850 years from 930 until 1798. The assembly would meet for two weeks at the Lögberg (‘Law Rock’) each year. Nearby Drowning Pool and Gallows Rock hint at some of the grimmer aspects of the proceedings. Tinganes, Faroe Islands The free men of the Faroe Islands met each summer on a rocky outcrop on the shore of Tórshavn from 825 until 1816, though by that time meetings had moved indoors. The islands were also administered by six local courts, known as ‘thingsteads’, which met in spring. Tynwald Hill, Isle of Man The traditional meeting place of the Manx parliamentary assembly is in the village of Saint John’s. Though established by the Vikings a millennium ago, the mound is thought…

THE LAW OF THE LAND

THE SECRET HISTORY OF Christmas

THE CHRISTMAS DAY TRUCE A temporary festive reprieve on the front line On Christmas Eve 1914, British troops were holed up their trenches when they overheard the Germans singing ‘Silent Night’ and other carols. They responded with their own festive songs, sparking a sing-off between the two sides. The next day, 25 December, some of the soldiers made their way into no-man’s-land to exchange gifts and take photos with the enemy. Whether the famous football match between the Germans and the British took place has been debated but there were certainly ‘kick-abouts’ between the two sides. It was a brief period of peace for those far away from home at a time when family was supposed to come together. Although a heartwarming story, the same could not be said for the entire Western…

THE SECRET HISTORY OF Christmas

FIGHT FOR YOUR RIGHTS

For a society that had so much pride and honour at stake, Viking Age disputes could just as often be settled by a test of arms. Before the ritualised duelling of holmgang took off, Norsemen could settle their differences in a far less formal type of smackdown known as einvigi. With no rules or set weapons, no moderators and no set arena, einvigi (meaning ‘single combat’) could be called to settle beef or establish fault in some dispute, and offered a release valve from the self-destructive patterns of feud, raid and retaliation that could destroy whole communities. If someone was killed in a duel, their family would be paid weregeld (‘man price’) in compensation and the matter was considered settled. In an attempt to curb this bloodshed, the holmgang (meaning…

FIGHT FOR YOUR RIGHTS

THE LAW OF THE LAND

Thingvellir, Iceland Established in 930, the Allthing was held in the Icelandic region of Thingvellir for 850 years from 930 until 1798. The assembly would meet for two weeks at the Lögberg (‘Law Rock’) each year. Nearby Drowning Pool and Gallows Rock hint at some of the grimmer aspects of the proceedings. Tinganes, Faroe Islands The free men of the Faroe Islands met each summer on a rocky outcrop on the shore of Tórshavn from 825 until 1816, though by that time meetings had moved indoors. The islands were also administered by six local courts, known as ‘thingsteads’, which met in spring. Tynwald Hill, Isle of Man The traditional meeting place of the Manx parliamentary assembly is in the village of Saint John’s. Though established by the Vikings a millennium…

THE LAW OF THE LAND

Mythbusting Christmas

BRITAIN’S CHRISTMAS METEORITE Britain’s largest ever meteorite landed in Barwell, near Leicester, on Christmas Eve 1965. Described as being “the size of desk” when it first entered the atmosphere, by the time it reached the earth it had broken down into the size of a Christmas turkey! Luckily, no one was hurt by the incident. THANKSGIVING CAROL ‘Jingle Bells’, one of the world’s best-loved Christmas carols, was actually written for Thanksgiving. Originally titled ‘One-Horse Open Sleigh’, it was created in the mid-19th century by James Pierpoint for his father’s Sunday school. The song proved so popular that the children asked to sing it again at Christmas and it has been deemed a festive song ever since. SILENT NIGHT, HOLY NIGHT According to legend, the carol ‘Silent Night’ was created as a result of mice chewing…

Mythbusting Christmas

A FEAST FOR THE AGES

MIDDLE AGES A) Boar’s head A roasted boar’s head was a common feature at Christmas banquets across Europe as it supposedly represented the triumph of Christ over sin — a reflection of Christianity taking over paganism. B) Venison Alongside various other meats, venison was always served at Christmas. The haunch would have been eaten by the rich but the animal’s offal would be given to the servants to make umble pie. C) Bread, cheese and ale An unlimited supply of bread and cheese was a popular choice to accompany the extravagant Christmas dishes at the banquets of the rich, washed down with a jug of ale. D) Frumenty pudding Made from boiled, cracked wheat, frumenty pudding was a popular dish during the Middle Ages, often served alongside meat such as venison. It was a mainstay of a Medieval…

A FEAST FOR THE AGES

THE SECRET HISTORY OF Christmas

THE CHRISTMAS DAY TRUCE A temporary festive reprieve on the front line On Christmas Eve 1914, British troops were holed up their trenches when they overheard the Germans singing ‘Silent Night’ and other carols. They responded with their own festive songs, sparking a sing-off between the two sides. The next day, 25 December, some of the soldiers made their way into no-man’s-land to exchange gifts and take photos with the enemy. Whether the famous football match between the Germans and the British took place has been debated but there were certainly ‘kick-abouts’ between the two sides. It was a brief period of peace for those far away from home at a time when family was supposed to come together. Although a heartwarming story, the same could not be said for…

THE SECRET HISTORY OF Christmas

Bluffer’s Guide Ellis Island USA, 1892-1954

What was it? A small islet in the shadow of the Statute of Liberty, Ellis Island was the entry point for millions who sought to start a new life in America for over 60 years. Facing an unprecedented wave of new arrivals at the turn of the century, the government established Ellis Island as the first federal immigration inspection station. Between 1892 and 1924, it is estimated that around 12 million people entered the United States through Ellis Island. However, not all new arrivals to New York City went through the famous facility. The authorities believed first-and second-class steamship passengers were less likely to become a public charge so they only underwent a cursory inspection aboard their ships before passing through customs. Only the poorest immigrants, who travelled in steerage class, were transported…

Bluffer’s Guide Ellis Island USA, 1892-1954

Mythbusting Christmas

BRITAIN’S CHRISTMAS METEORITE Britain’s largest ever meteorite landed in Barwell, near Leicester, on Christmas Eve 1965. Described as being “the size of desk” when it first entered the atmosphere, by the time it reached the earth it had broken down into the size of a Christmas turkey! Luckily, no one was hurt by the incident. THANKSGIVING CAROL ‘Jingle Bells’, one of the world’s best-loved Christmas carols, was actually written for Thanksgiving. Originally titled ‘One-Horse Open Sleigh’, it was created in the mid-19th century by James Pierpoint for his father’s Sunday school. The song proved so popular that the children asked to sing it again at Christmas and it has been deemed a festive song ever since. SILENT NIGHT, HOLY NIGHT According to legend, the carol ‘Silent Night’ was created as…

Mythbusting Christmas

LONDON’S LOST FROST FAIRS

Sometimes Londoners called it the ‘Blanket Fair’, other times ‘Freezeland Street’, ‘City Road’ or, rather grandiosely, ‘Frostiana’. But from 1309 to 1814, whenever the River Thames froze solid, an elaborate carnival would break out the ice. So roll up, roll up! Enter London’s lost frost fairs to discover a tent city of hastily assembled shops and pubs, circus performers and a wide variety of games. The rival of any royal extravaganza, expect customers from every strata of society, with more than one monarch making an appearance. But be warned — its unique position also puts it outside of any authority’s jurisdiction, so there are no police to break up fights or catch pickpockets. The ice is also prone to suddenly crack, drowning more than one reveller in the depths below. But this…

LONDON’S LOST FROST FAIRS

A TIME FOR CORONATIONS

THREE LEADERS WHO LOST THEIR CROWNS AT CHRISTMAS…

A TIME FOR CORONATIONS

A FEAST FOR THE AGES

MIDDLE AGES A) Boar’s head A roasted boar’s head was a common feature at Christmas banquets across Europe as it supposedly represented the triumph of Christ over sin — a reflection of Christianity taking over paganism. B) Venison Alongside various other meats, venison was always served at Christmas. The haunch would have been eaten by the rich but the animal’s offal would be given to the servants to make umble pie. C) Bread, cheese and ale An unlimited supply of bread and cheese was a popular choice to accompany the extravagant Christmas dishes at the banquets of the rich, washed down with a jug of ale. D) Frumenty pudding Made from boiled, cracked wheat, frumenty pudding was a popular dish during the Middle Ages, often served alongside meat such as…

A FEAST FOR THE AGES

“A CARNIVAL ON THE WATER”

“THE WATERMEN ALSO SET UP A NUMBER OF ATTRACTIONS TO LURE CUSTOMERS ONTO THE RIVER” 01 Archery on ice The Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I, went out on the ice every day when the river froze in 1564 to shoot targets. This year also saw the first proper frost fair, where royal courtiers mixed with London’s commoners. 02 Printing press Printers were a popular attraction at many frost fairs, printing customers’ names onto commemorative souvenirs. While early fair-goers were mostly illiterate and settled for simple postcards, by 1814 ballads and books were sold on the ice. 03 Marching elephant While the 1814 fair only lasted a few days, some modern sources have claimed that the ice was so strong that “a very fine elephant was led across the Thames a little below Blackfriars Bridge.” However, there is…

“A CARNIVAL ON THE WATER”

DANGERS ON THE ICE

How did the Thames freezing affect London? The rarity of the event caused people to enjoy it but the reality was rather different for the economy. A large amount of London’s goods were transported via the river, either through coastal trade or small vessels carrying cargo to and from ocean-going ships. The ease of transporting heavy or perishable goods was very profound and affected everyone. Unless people had stockpiled in anticipation, they were probably suffering severe hardship. The City made attempts to stockpile fuel in various warehousing across London but those supplies dwindled from time to time. Of course, whenever you have a shortage of anything, prices go up, so those who were less able to afford things would have been more impoverished. Communication would also have been very difficult. What did the…

Bluffer’s Guide Ellis Island USA, 1892-1954

What was it? A small islet in the shadow of the Statute of Liberty, Ellis Island was the entry point for millions who sought to start a new life in America for over 60 years. Facing an unprecedented wave of new arrivals at the turn of the century, the government established Ellis Island as the first federal immigration inspection station. Between 1892 and 1924, it is estimated that around 12 million people entered the United States through Ellis Island. However, not all new arrivals to New York City went through the famous facility. The authorities believed first-and second-class steamship passengers were less likely to become a public charge so they only underwent a cursory inspection aboard their ships before passing through customs. Only the poorest immigrants, who travelled in steerage…

Bluffer’s Guide
Ellis Island USA, 1892-1954

Time Traveller’s Handbook COLONIAL BRAZIL Brazil, 17th century

Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral planted the nation’s flag on the Brazilian shore as early as 1500, but over 100 years later only a few trading posts have been established on the east coast. While the Portuguese Empire focuses on expansion into India and the Far East, Brazil has been divided into 15 captaincies that are run by Portuguese nobles. They run these as their own private fiefdoms while logging brazilwood trees for its extremely valuable red dye. But in São Paulo, still the only inland settlement of any size, second- and third-generation settlers are exploring the country’s interior, including its mountainous highlands and deep jungle. These explorers, or bandeirantes, travel in groups of several hundred, following the river courses on journeys that last months or years. Hoping to find gold…

Time Traveller’s Handbook COLONIAL BRAZIL Brazil, 17th century

LONDON’S LOST FROST FAIRS

Sometimes Londoners called it the ‘Blanket Fair’, other times ‘Freezeland Street’, ‘City Road’ or, rather grandiosely, ‘Frostiana’. But from 1309 to 1814, whenever the River Thames froze solid, an elaborate carnival would break out the ice. So roll up, roll up! Enter London’s lost frost fairs to discover a tent city of hastily assembled shops and pubs, circus performers and a wide variety of games. The rival of any royal extravaganza, expect customers from every strata of society, with more than one monarch making an appearance. But be warned — its unique position also puts it outside of any authority’s jurisdiction, so there are no police to break up fights or catch pickpockets. The ice is also prone to suddenly crack, drowning more than one reveller in the depths below.…

LONDON’S LOST FROST FAIRS

“A CARNIVAL ON THE WATER”

“THE WATERMEN ALSO SET UP A NUMBER OF ATTRACTIONS TO LURE CUSTOMERS ONTO THE RIVER” 01 Archery on ice The Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I, went out on the ice every day when the river froze in 1564 to shoot targets. This year also saw the first proper frost fair, where royal courtiers mixed with London’s commoners. 02 Printing press Printers were a popular attraction at many frost fairs, printing customers’ names onto commemorative souvenirs. While early fair-goers were mostly illiterate and settled for simple postcards, by 1814 ballads and books were sold on the ice. 03 Marching elephant While the 1814 fair only lasted a few days, some modern sources have claimed that the ice was so strong that “a very fine elephant was led across the Thames a little…

“A CARNIVAL ON THE WATER”

WHO TO BEFRIEND Antônio Raposo Tavares Although he is as much a slave hunter as his fellow bandeirantes, Antônio Raposo Tavares has also done more to expand Brazil’s borders than anyone else. If you are in São Paulo in 1654, you might be able meet him as he returns from his most recent expedition, which has taken seven years. Covering more than 10,000 kilometres, he has pushed inland all the way to the Andes mountains. But of the 1,200 men who set out with him, only 60 or so remain and Tavares is a changed man. Exhaustion and malnutrition will kill him within a few years, too. Extra tip: The bandeirantes are an insular group who all know each other. For example, the famous bandeirante Manuel de Borba Gato is the son-in-law of…

What if… Richard I and Saladin had intermarried?

“He had to keep winning victories to keep his army together” INTERVIEW WITH… HELEN NICHOLSON Professor of Medieval History at Cardiff University, Helen Nicholson is a world-leading scholar on the Crusades and its military religious orders. Her research interests include women in the Crusades, the trials of the Knights Templar in Britain and the use of Medieval literature as historical evidence. What was the cause of the Third Crusade from 1189 to 1192? The immediate cause was the pope’s call for the crusade after Saladin [the first sultan of Egypt, Syria, Palestine and Yemen] captured Jerusalem. We have a papal accord to the Christians to go to the aid of their fellow Christians in the East. It’s a family matter as well because King Henry II of England was a cousin of the rulers…

What if… Richard I and Saladin had intermarried?

DANGERS ON THE ICE

How did the Thames freezing affect London? The rarity of the event caused people to enjoy it but the reality was rather different for the economy. A large amount of London’s goods were transported via the river, either through coastal trade or small vessels carrying cargo to and from ocean-going ships. The ease of transporting heavy or perishable goods was very profound and affected everyone. Unless people had stockpiled in anticipation, they were probably suffering severe hardship. The City made attempts to stockpile fuel in various warehousing across London but those supplies dwindled from time to time. Of course, whenever you have a shortage of anything, prices go up, so those who were less able to afford things would have been more impoverished. Communication would also have been very difficult.…

Time Traveller’s Handbook COLONIAL BRAZIL Brazil, 17th century

Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral planted the nation’s flag on the Brazilian shore as early as 1500, but over 100 years later only a few trading posts have been established on the east coast. While the Portuguese Empire focuses on expansion into India and the Far East, Brazil has been divided into 15 captaincies that are run by Portuguese nobles. They run these as their own private fiefdoms while logging brazilwood trees for its extremely valuable red dye. But in São Paulo, still the only inland settlement of any size, second- and third-generation settlers are exploring the country’s interior, including its mountainous highlands and deep jungle. These explorers, or bandeirantes, travel in groups of several hundred, following the river courses on journeys that last months or years. Hoping to find…

Time Traveller’s Handbook COLONIAL BRAZIL Brazil, 17th century

OPERATION UNDERWORLD

Just a few months after its explosive entry into World War II, the US suffered another significant naval casualty. USS Lafayette, an 80,000-ton former French ocean liner, caught fire and capsized in New York Harbor in February 1942. Commandeered by the authorities, the ship was in the process of being converted into troop transport when it sank. Happening so soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the government immediately suspected enemy sabotage. A congressional investigation eventually ruled the disaster an accident but the incident exposed how vulnerable the East Coast was to infiltration by Axis agents. U-boats had been spotted patrolling in packs along the coastline. German torpedoes were taking out dozens of merchant ships — on their way to resupply Allied forces in Europe — every month. In June, German…

OPERATION UNDERWORLD

FRIENDS IN LOW PLACES

Meyer Lansky 4 July 1902 – 15 January 1983 Mob associate A lifelong partner of Luciano and highly regarded mob associate, Lansky was a Jewish mobster who would later become a financier for the Five Families — their ‘accountant’, if you like. He helped to convince Luciano to lend his underworld contacts to the navy’s counterespionage efforts. Albert Anastasia 26 September 1902 – 26 September 1957 Gambino ‘Mad Hatter’ Anastasia was a feared mob hit man with a hair-trigger temper who would later become boss of the Gambino crime family. He controlled the Brooklyn waterfront and later sought to claim responsibility for the sabotage of USS Lafayette, although it is very unlikely that he was the culprit. Charles Luciano 24 November 1897 – 26 January 1962 Genovese ‘Lucky’ Luciano is probably one of the most influential mob bosses…

FRIENDS IN LOW PLACES

WHO TO BEFRIEND Antônio Raposo Tavares Although he is as much a slave hunter as his fellow bandeirantes, Antônio Raposo Tavares has also done more to expand Brazil’s borders than anyone else. If you are in São Paulo in 1654, you might be able meet him as he returns from his most recent expedition, which has taken seven years. Covering more than 10,000 kilometres, he has pushed inland all the way to the Andes mountains. But of the 1,200 men who set out with him, only 60 or so remain and Tavares is a changed man. Exhaustion and malnutrition will kill him within a few years, too. Extra tip: The bandeirantes are an insular group who all know each other. For example, the famous bandeirante Manuel de Borba Gato is…

What if… Richard I and Saladin had intermarried?

“He had to keep winning victories to keep his army together” INTERVIEW WITH… HELEN NICHOLSON Professor of Medieval History at Cardiff University, Helen Nicholson is a world-leading scholar on the Crusades and its military religious orders. Her research interests include women in the Crusades, the trials of the Knights Templar in Britain and the use of Medieval literature as historical evidence. What was the cause of the Third Crusade from 1189 to 1192? The immediate cause was the pope’s call for the crusade after Saladin [the first sultan of Egypt, Syria, Palestine and Yemen] captured Jerusalem. We have a papal accord to the Christians to go to the aid of their fellow Christians in the East. It’s a family matter as well because King Henry II of England was a…

What if… Richard I and Saladin had intermarried?

HITLER’S DOOMED SABOTAGE MISSION

Operation Pastorius was sound in principle: the Nazis would contact and recruit eight German citizens living in the US. They would arm them, give them explosives, $175,000, fake identity cards and draft deferment documents to avoid being called up for military service. This was December 1941, just after the US had declared war on Japan, and Germany wanted a campaign of terror to demoralise civilians and hamper the US war machine. The saboteurs were trained at the German High Command near Berlin where they were taught to handle explosives, they made efforts to improve their English and pop culture knowledge by reading American newspapers and magazines, and they developed robust fake histories that they learned by heart. They had all the resources but it seemed none of the professionalism required for the job.…

HITLER’S DOOMED SABOTAGE MISSION

OPERATION UNDERWORLD

Just a few months after its explosive entry into World War II, the US suffered another significant naval casualty. USS Lafayette, an 80,000-ton former French ocean liner, caught fire and capsized in New York Harbor in February 1942. Commandeered by the authorities, the ship was in the process of being converted into troop transport when it sank. Happening so soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the government immediately suspected enemy sabotage. A congressional investigation eventually ruled the disaster an accident but the incident exposed how vulnerable the East Coast was to infiltration by Axis agents. U-boats had been spotted patrolling in packs along the coastline. German torpedoes were taking out dozens of merchant ships — on their way to resupply Allied forces in Europe — every month. In June,…

OPERATION UNDERWORLD

The Dragon Empress

“Wu was learning the skills that would one day help her rule a nation” The Guanzhong Plain in Shanxi province is China’s own Valley of the Kings, scattered with 20 mausoleums to Tang dynasty rulers. However, one of the tombs at Qianling Mausoleum is quite different from the others. Normally, the huge stone slab that sits outside a tomb lists the great deeds of the dead, but this one’s tablet is blank. Known as the Wordless Stele, it marks the tomb of the only woman to rule China in her own right as an empress in the country’s 2,000 years of history. On the one hand, Empress Wu Zetian’s blank slate suggests she did nothing memorable. Others will tell you it hints at a life of murder, betrayals and scheming — acts…

The Dragon Empress

FRIENDS IN LOW PLACES

Meyer Lansky 4 July 1902 – 15 January 1983 Mob associate A lifelong partner of Luciano and highly regarded mob associate, Lansky was a Jewish mobster who would later become a financier for the Five Families — their ‘accountant’, if you like. He helped to convince Luciano to lend his underworld contacts to the navy’s counterespionage efforts. Albert Anastasia 26 September 1902 – 26 September 1957 Gambino ‘Mad Hatter’ Anastasia was a feared mob hit man with a hair-trigger temper who would later become boss of the Gambino crime family. He controlled the Brooklyn waterfront and later sought to claim responsibility for the sabotage of USS Lafayette, although it is very unlikely that he was the culprit. Charles Luciano 24 November 1897 – 26 January 1962 Genovese ‘Lucky’ Luciano is…

FRIENDS IN LOW PLACES

Pagoda of Power

Reign of terror Wu works quickly to eliminate any opposition in the court. She systematically wipes out all claimants to the throne by exile, execution and even forced suicide so that she can rule unopposed. Seizes the throne With no sons left, Wu claims the dragon throne for herself and becomes the first recognised female ruler of china to govern in her own name. Second son abdicates Wu keeps her second son and current emperor under house arrest but eventually gets tired of him, too. She forces him to abdicate the throne and he does as he’s told. Son is charged After Taizong’s death, Wu’s son takes the throne but he is unruly with a scheming wife. Wu decides to cut all ties and has him charged with treason and banished. Weds the emperor Now with no rivals to…

Pagoda of Power

HITLER’S DOOMED SABOTAGE MISSION

Operation Pastorius was sound in principle: the Nazis would contact and recruit eight German citizens living in the US. They would arm them, give them explosives, $175,000, fake identity cards and draft deferment documents to avoid being called up for military service. This was December 1941, just after the US had declared war on Japan, and Germany wanted a campaign of terror to demoralise civilians and hamper the US war machine. The saboteurs were trained at the German High Command near Berlin where they were taught to handle explosives, they made efforts to improve their English and pop culture knowledge by reading American newspapers and magazines, and they developed robust fake histories that they learned by heart. They had all the resources but it seemed none of the professionalism required…

HITLER’S DOOMED SABOTAGE MISSION

Q: How reliable do you believe the historical accounts of Wu Zetian’s reign to be? A: The accounts of Wu’s reign are full of lies and spin from her, her enemies and her descendants. We actually have lots of information about the period but all of it is suspect in some way, so it’s essential to compare varying sources to get a sense of what they are circling around. Q: To what extent do you believe that her reign improved or harmed China’s perception and treatment of women in the 7th century and beyond? A: There’s a huge deal of hypocrisy. Wu gets blamed for dragging the dynasty down but she presided over its peak of prosperity, promoted a meritocracy and pushed for greater recognition of women’s contribution to society. Women in Chinese…

The Dragon Empress

“Wu was learning the skills that would one day help her rule a nation” The Guanzhong Plain in Shanxi province is China’s own Valley of the Kings, scattered with 20 mausoleums to Tang dynasty rulers. However, one of the tombs at Qianling Mausoleum is quite different from the others. Normally, the huge stone slab that sits outside a tomb lists the great deeds of the dead, but this one’s tablet is blank. Known as the Wordless Stele, it marks the tomb of the only woman to rule China in her own right as an empress in the country’s 2,000 years of history. On the one hand, Empress Wu Zetian’s blank slate suggests she did nothing memorable. Others will tell you it hints at a life of murder, betrayals and scheming…

The Dragon Empress

Wu’s Blazing Trail

It is not unusual for women who have risen to the highest stations to go against their gender. Many female leaders throughout history have even felt obliged to deny it, such as Elizabeth I with her “heart and stomach of a king”. However, Wu decided to use their newfound power not to praise the strength of men but instead elevate the position of women. She instructed her scholars to write biographies of famous and accomplished women and led a group of women to perform traditionally male rituals at Mount Tai. Most notably, she promoted women to roles of influence within government, appointing the first female Chinese prime minister, Shangguan Wan’er. Inspired by their strong, female leader, female poets and painters flourished. Many common women, who had been told their path was already…

Wu’s Blazing Trail

Spying FOR THE Empress

Petition boxes Masquerading as a place for commoners and court officials alike to voice their suggestions, these petition boxes were actually a way to entrap those who plotted against Wu. Her spies and secret police would use it to name those they suspected as scheming and she quickly had the people named eliminated. Rewards Ratting out and spying on people was nasty business, often putting the secret police in danger themselves. Asking people to spy simply out of loyalty was not going to work, so instead Wu made sure to reward those who foiled plots handsomely. This lust for rewards actually prompted many of her spies to implicate as many people as they could get away with, and one of her police tried to implicate Wu’s own sons and family members — a…

Spying FOR THE Empress

Pagoda of Power

Reign of terror Wu works quickly to eliminate any opposition in the court. She systematically wipes out all claimants to the throne by exile, execution and even forced suicide so that she can rule unopposed. Seizes the throne With no sons left, Wu claims the dragon throne for herself and becomes the first recognised female ruler of china to govern in her own name. Second son abdicates Wu keeps her second son and current emperor under house arrest but eventually gets tired of him, too. She forces him to abdicate the throne and he does as he’s told. Son is charged After Taizong’s death, Wu’s son takes the throne but he is unruly with a scheming wife. Wu decides to cut all ties and has him charged with treason and…

Pagoda of Power

Q: How reliable do you believe the historical accounts of Wu Zetian’s reign to be? A: The accounts of Wu’s reign are full of lies and spin from her, her enemies and her descendants. We actually have lots of information about the period but all of it is suspect in some way, so it’s essential to compare varying sources to get a sense of what they are circling around. Q: To what extent do you believe that her reign improved or harmed China’s perception and treatment of women in the 7th century and beyond? A: There’s a huge deal of hypocrisy. Wu gets blamed for dragging the dynasty down but she presided over its peak of prosperity, promoted a meritocracy and pushed for greater recognition of women’s contribution to society.…

BATTLE OF SEMPACH

Armour fatigue The Austrian knights initially made inroads into the Swiss’ tight square formation, but when the Swiss reinforcements arrived they had grown weary from fighting in full armour. They were no match for the fresh troops. Legend of Winkelried Swiss historians embellished the battle in the late 16th century by fabricating the tale of the legendary Arnold von Winkelried. This selfless hero supposedly threw himself on the sharp tips of half a dozen enemy lances so that those fighting alongside him would have a path into the seemingly impenetrable Austrian line. Swiss shock troops Inside the square were special troops whose function it was to rush out and engage the enemy in close-quarters combat. They carried a variety of weapons such as the morning star, which consisted of a mace topped with sharp spikes. Minimal…

BATTLE OF SEMPACH

Austrian Habsburgs

DUKE LEOPOLD III OF AUSTRIA LEADER The ambitious duke ruled the Habsburg family’s western domains and was eager to acquire new lands. Strengths Though he only brought a moderate-sized army to Sempach, he had a sizeable base to cherrypick recruits from. Weaknesses He was completely unprepared for the arrival of the enemy’s reinforcements. KNIGHTS KEY UNIT The Austrians fought dismounted at Sempach because they had lost previous battles to the Swiss fighting on horseback. Strengths Their plate armour gave them some protection that the Swiss lacked. Weaknesses They could not manoeuvre as well as infantry. LANCE KEY WEAPON The dismounted knights used their lances as infantry spears throughout the battle. Strengths Their poles outreached the short-shafted Swiss halberds. Weaknesses They were unwieldy in close combat.…

Austrian Habsburgs

Wu’s Blazing Trail

It is not unusual for women who have risen to the highest stations to go against their gender. Many female leaders throughout history have even felt obliged to deny it, such as Elizabeth I with her “heart and stomach of a king”. However, Wu decided to use their newfound power not to praise the strength of men but instead elevate the position of women. She instructed her scholars to write biographies of famous and accomplished women and led a group of women to perform traditionally male rituals at Mount Tai. Most notably, she promoted women to roles of influence within government, appointing the first female Chinese prime minister, Shangguan Wan’er. Inspired by their strong, female leader, female poets and painters flourished. Many common women, who had been told their path…

Wu’s Blazing Trail

Swiss Confederation

PETERMANN VON GUNDOLDINGEN LEADER A courageous leader who inspired his troops and fought alongside them until his death. Strengths He thought on his feet, quickly mobilising Swiss forces to counter the Austrian invasion. Weaknesses Failed to send scouts to track the enemy’s approach. HEAVY INFANTRY KEY UNIT The Swiss fought in a phalanx-like square with deep files suited for either attack or defence. Strengths They had the training, discipline and morale to execute an effective shock attack. Weaknesses They lacked steel caps and breastplates to adequately defend themselves against any armoured opponents. HALBERD KEY WEAPON A 2.4-metre ash handle mounting a broad-headed axe that had a point to puncture armour. It also had a spike opposite the axe blade that functioned as a hook to unhorse passing riders. Strengths A versatile weapon that was highly effective in close-quarters fighting. Weaknesses Its short handle was…

Swiss Confederation

Spying FOR THE Empress

Petition boxes Masquerading as a place for commoners and court officials alike to voice their suggestions, these petition boxes were actually a way to entrap those who plotted against Wu. Her spies and secret police would use it to name those they suspected as scheming and she quickly had the people named eliminated. Rewards Ratting out and spying on people was nasty business, often putting the secret police in danger themselves. Asking people to spy simply out of loyalty was not going to work, so instead Wu made sure to reward those who foiled plots handsomely. This lust for rewards actually prompted many of her spies to implicate as many people as they could get away with, and one of her police tried to implicate Wu’s own sons and family…

Spying FOR THE Empress

HERO OR VILLAIN? King Edward I

“A warrior through and through, much of Edward’s reputation comes from his various campaigns in England, Wales, Scotland, France and the Middle East” Edward I stands as one of the most celebrated and vilified kings of Medieval England. Fêted at home for his military skill and governance, he his remembered as a tyrannical invader by those unfortunate enough to get in his way. A fierce warrior and capable administrator, he was also ambitious to a fault. Edward’s large stature gave him the nickname ‘Longshanks’ and he loomed over his advisors and England’s neighbours in equal measure, constantly looking to expand his the borders of his realm. While this behaviour was not unusual for the period, Edward’s reckless spending and heavy-handed approach to dealing with, in his eyes, unruly subjects, has seen him…

HERO OR VILLAIN? King Edward I

BATTLE OF SEMPACH

Armour fatigue The Austrian knights initially made inroads into the Swiss’ tight square formation, but when the Swiss reinforcements arrived they had grown weary from fighting in full armour. They were no match for the fresh troops. Legend of Winkelried Swiss historians embellished the battle in the late 16th century by fabricating the tale of the legendary Arnold von Winkelried. This selfless hero supposedly threw himself on the sharp tips of half a dozen enemy lances so that those fighting alongside him would have a path into the seemingly impenetrable Austrian line. Swiss shock troops Inside the square were special troops whose function it was to rush out and engage the enemy in close-quarters combat. They carried a variety of weapons such as the morning star, which consisted of a…

BATTLE OF SEMPACH

ONE’S BEST FRIEND

“Their pets offered the unconditional love, affection and loyalty that they might have struggled to find elsewhere” There is nothing quite like the bond between humans and their pets and rulers are no exception. Throughout history they can be seen with their loyal companions stood their side. For many of these people, their pets offered the unconditional love, affection and loyalty that they might have struggled to find elsewhere due to their positions. Many of these stories are heartwarming and, in some cases, offer up different perspectives on historical figures. Histories of Queen Victoria are often dominated by the focus on her marriage to Prince Albert and the four decades she spent mourning his death. Yet her childhood relationship with Dash, her cherished Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, highlights the plight of a lonely,…

ONE’S BEST FRIEND

Austrian Habsburgs

DUKE LEOPOLD III OF AUSTRIA LEADER The ambitious duke ruled the Habsburg family’s western domains and was eager to acquire new lands. Strengths Though he only brought a moderate-sized army to Sempach, he had a sizeable base to cherrypick recruits from. Weaknesses He was completely unprepared for the arrival of the enemy’s reinforcements. KNIGHTS KEY UNIT The Austrians fought dismounted at Sempach because they had lost previous battles to the Swiss fighting on horseback. Strengths Their plate armour gave them some protection that the Swiss lacked. Weaknesses They could not manoeuvre as well as infantry. LANCE KEY WEAPON The dismounted knights used their lances as infantry spears throughout the battle. Strengths Their poles outreached the short-shafted Swiss halberds. Weaknesses They were unwieldy in close combat.…

Austrian Habsburgs

How to make… DULCIS COCCORA

These delicious delicacies filled with honey and nuts were originally known as ‘tiger nut sweets’ and a recipe for them is reported to have appeared on a broken piece of Egyptian pottery dating from 1600 BCE. Tiger nuts come from the yellow nutsedge plant. They were so revered in Ancient Egypt that tombs were with filled with the nut as well as decorated with images of them. But they are considered a weed by many farmers today, so don’t appear in modern recipes for dulcis coccora. This could be about to change though, as some dieticians have labelled tiger nuts a ‘super food’ as they are high in fibre. No dulcis coccora is complete without another Ancient Egyptian delicacy: honey. Beekeepers first appeared in Egyptian hieroglyphs dating from the First Dynasty, around…

How to make… DULCIS COCCORA

ELIZABETH’S RIVAL: THE TUMULTUOUS TALE OF LETTICE KNOLLYS, COUNTESS OF LEICESTER

“Tallis’ thorough research is clear to see and her passion for the subject is evident in the narrative” Author Nicola Tallis Publisher Michael O’Mara Books Price £20 Released Out now A woman who outlived three husbands, six children and seven monarchs, Lettice Knollys was, as author Nicola Tallis puts it, “the last of the great Elizabethan survivors.” She has never been the centre of attention but, for the first time, the countess of Leicester gets the full-length biography that she so rightly deserves. Off the bat, Tallis makes a bold claim that Lettice may have been the illegitimate granddaughter of Henry VIII through her maternal grandmother, Mary Boleyn. Although we will never be certain, Lettice’s position as grandniece of Anne Boleyn — and therefore first cousin once removed to Elizabeth I — would…

ELIZABETH’S RIVAL: THE TUMULTUOUS TALE OF LETTICE KNOLLYS, COUNTESS OF LEICESTER

Swiss Confederation

PETERMANN VON GUNDOLDINGEN LEADER A courageous leader who inspired his troops and fought alongside them until his death. Strengths He thought on his feet, quickly mobilising Swiss forces to counter the Austrian invasion. Weaknesses Failed to send scouts to track the enemy’s approach. HEAVY INFANTRY KEY UNIT The Swiss fought in a phalanx-like square with deep files suited for either attack or defence. Strengths They had the training, discipline and morale to execute an effective shock attack. Weaknesses They lacked steel caps and breastplates to adequately defend themselves against any armoured opponents. HALBERD KEY WEAPON A 2.4-metre ash handle mounting a broad-headed axe that had a point to puncture armour. It also had a spike opposite the axe blade that functioned as a hook to unhorse passing riders. Strengths A…

Swiss Confederation

LADY FANSHAWE’S RECEIPT BOOK: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF A CIVIL WAR HEROINE

Author Lucy Moore Publisher Atlantic Books Price £20 Released Out now “Marriage was a seventeenth century woman’s career” writes Lucy Moore, with respectable females anticipating unions with well-connected, prosperous men, lived out in elegant surroundings fit to fulfil their wifely and motherly duties. But in the chasm of the Civil War, England’s rocky foundations crumbled and all had to adapt to a world with no clear future in sight. As a daughter and wife to servants of the crown, Ann Fanshawe was a true Royalist and, as one might expect, her family endured years of peril trying to keep their cause’s flame alive. To piece together Ann’s dramatic life, author Lucy Moore consults not only her memoirs, but her receipt book — a carefully cultivated collection of medicinal recipes shared by family and…

LADY FANSHAWE’S RECEIPT BOOK: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF A CIVIL WAR HEROINE

JONATHAN SWIFT: THE RELUCTANT REBEL

Author John Stubbs Publisher Viking Books Price £11 Released Out now Jonathan Swift was, allegedly, kidnapped by his wet nurse and spirited away from Ireland to England. He was, shockingly, once confronted with a bomb hidden inside a band-box. And he was, famously, the man who made Gulliver. The life of this Anglo-Irish satirist was as complicated as it was extraordinary, and the period in which he lived was turbulent and fraught with tension. The Reluctant Rebel captures this, creating an extensive biography of a remarkable man and a detailed history of the world he inhabited. Swift’s life — his family history, childhood, education and career — are all meticulously covered. The tangled relationships he formed with Esther Johnson and Esther Vanhomrigh, whom he styled ‘Stella’ and ‘Vanessa’ respectively, particularly stand out.…

JONATHAN SWIFT: THE RELUCTANT REBEL

HERO OR VILLAIN? King Edward I

“A warrior through and through, much of Edward’s reputation comes from his various campaigns in England, Wales, Scotland, France and the Middle East” Edward I stands as one of the most celebrated and vilified kings of Medieval England. Fêted at home for his military skill and governance, he his remembered as a tyrannical invader by those unfortunate enough to get in his way. A fierce warrior and capable administrator, he was also ambitious to a fault. Edward’s large stature gave him the nickname ‘Longshanks’ and he loomed over his advisors and England’s neighbours in equal measure, constantly looking to expand his the borders of his realm. While this behaviour was not unusual for the period, Edward’s reckless spending and heavy-handed approach to dealing with, in his eyes, unruly subjects, has…

HERO OR VILLAIN? King Edward I

PRISONER OF THE SWISS

Author Daniel Culler and Rob Morris Publisher Casemate Price £20 Released Out now Once a nation of mercenaries, Switzerland cemented its infamous position as a neutral state during the Napoleonic Wars. In fact, such was its desire to remain impartial that it rigidly enforced the 1907 Hague Convention requirement that all foreign troops entering the country would be interned in camps during World War II, resulting in the imprisonment of 1,517 US airmen that sought asylum there during the struggle to liberate Europe. Daniel Culler was one of them. Feeling honour-bound to sign up in the wake of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, Culler became the first flight engineer in a bombing crew that flew 24 successful missions over Germany. But his luck wouldn’t last — his plane was shot down…

PRISONER OF THE SWISS

ONE’S BEST FRIEND

“Their pets offered the unconditional love, affection and loyalty that they might have struggled to find elsewhere” There is nothing quite like the bond between humans and their pets and rulers are no exception. Throughout history they can be seen with their loyal companions stood their side. For many of these people, their pets offered the unconditional love, affection and loyalty that they might have struggled to find elsewhere due to their positions. Many of these stories are heartwarming and, in some cases, offer up different perspectives on historical figures. Histories of Queen Victoria are often dominated by the focus on her marriage to Prince Albert and the four decades she spent mourning his death. Yet her childhood relationship with Dash, her cherished Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, highlights the plight…

ONE’S BEST FRIEND

HISTORY of WAR RECOMMENDS…

Churchill: Warrior Author Brian Lavery Price £25 Publisher Casemate When Winston Churchill was elected prime minister for the first time in 1940, Britain was already at war. He later wrote of the event: “I felt [...] that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour and for this trial”. Veteran history writer Brian Lavery’s new biography explores that past life in great detail, including Churchill’s time as a colonial soldier, a war correspondent covering the Boer War and as a long-serving politician. The author of the 2010 bestseller Empire of the Seas chronicles the British Bulldog’s many exploits and insightfully considers how Churchill’s military background and experience of command shaped his ability to win World War II.…

HISTORY of WAR RECOMMENDS…

How to make… DULCIS COCCORA

These delicious delicacies filled with honey and nuts were originally known as ‘tiger nut sweets’ and a recipe for them is reported to have appeared on a broken piece of Egyptian pottery dating from 1600 BCE. Tiger nuts come from the yellow nutsedge plant. They were so revered in Ancient Egypt that tombs were with filled with the nut as well as decorated with images of them. But they are considered a weed by many farmers today, so don’t appear in modern recipes for dulcis coccora. This could be about to change though, as some dieticians have labelled tiger nuts a ‘super food’ as they are high in fibre. No dulcis coccora is complete without another Ancient Egyptian delicacy: honey. Beekeepers first appeared in Egyptian hieroglyphs dating from the First…

How to make… DULCIS COCCORA

THE RISE OF ROME: FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE PUNIC WARS

Author Kathryn Lomas Publisher Profile Books Price £25 Released Out now Starting in 1000 BCE and hurtling chronologically to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BCE, Kathryn Lomas takes you on a journey through the early years of one of history’s most famous states. Tales of political intrigue and turmoil are interspersed with comments on society and culture along with some of the key players. Despite its occasional dryness, one of the best things about this books is that it doesn’t require much prior knowledge. Latin terms like ‘quaestor’ and ‘hospes’ are all translated and explained, and a list of sources and references means that you can look further into everything in your own time. If you wish to explore further afield, there’s also a handy guide to archaeological sites…

THE RISE OF ROME: FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE PUNIC WARS

ELIZABETH’S RIVAL: THE TUMULTUOUS TALE OF LETTICE KNOLLYS, COUNTESS OF LEICESTER

“Tallis’ thorough research is clear to see and her passion for the subject is evident in the narrative” Author Nicola Tallis Publisher Michael O’Mara Books Price £20 Released Out now A woman who outlived three husbands, six children and seven monarchs, Lettice Knollys was, as author Nicola Tallis puts it, “the last of the great Elizabethan survivors.” She has never been the centre of attention but, for the first time, the countess of Leicester gets the full-length biography that she so rightly deserves. Off the bat, Tallis makes a bold claim that Lettice may have been the illegitimate granddaughter of Henry VIII through her maternal grandmother, Mary Boleyn. Although we will never be certain, Lettice’s position as grandniece of Anne Boleyn — and therefore first cousin once removed to Elizabeth…

ELIZABETH’S RIVAL: THE TUMULTUOUS TALE OF LETTICE KNOLLYS, COUNTESS OF LEICESTER

ALONE IN BERLIN

01 Based on Hans Fallada’s fictionalised account of the real-life rebels, some of the film’s inaccuracies can be traced back to Fallada’s novel. In reality it was Elise’s brother who died, but both the novel and the film have changed this to the couple’s son. 02 Otto and Elise had been married for less than five years when war broke out and were in their mid and early 40s respectively when they died in 1943. At 62 and 58 years old, Gleeson and Thompson are almost 20 years older than their real-life counterparts. 03 For a city in the midst of a brutal conflict, Perez’s vision of Berlin looks surprisingly picturesque. It’s clean and bright, with one or two bucolic scenes that look as though they belong in the glossy pages of…

ALONE IN BERLIN

LADY FANSHAWE’S RECEIPT BOOK: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF A CIVIL WAR HEROINE

Author Lucy Moore Publisher Atlantic Books Price £20 Released Out now “Marriage was a seventeenth century woman’s career” writes Lucy Moore, with respectable females anticipating unions with well-connected, prosperous men, lived out in elegant surroundings fit to fulfil their wifely and motherly duties. But in the chasm of the Civil War, England’s rocky foundations crumbled and all had to adapt to a world with no clear future in sight. As a daughter and wife to servants of the crown, Ann Fanshawe was a true Royalist and, as one might expect, her family endured years of peril trying to keep their cause’s flame alive. To piece together Ann’s dramatic life, author Lucy Moore consults not only her memoirs, but her receipt book — a carefully cultivated collection of medicinal recipes shared…

LADY FANSHAWE’S RECEIPT BOOK: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF A CIVIL WAR HEROINE

JONATHAN SWIFT: THE RELUCTANT REBEL

Author John Stubbs Publisher Viking Books Price £11 Released Out now Jonathan Swift was, allegedly, kidnapped by his wet nurse and spirited away from Ireland to England. He was, shockingly, once confronted with a bomb hidden inside a band-box. And he was, famously, the man who made Gulliver. The life of this Anglo-Irish satirist was as complicated as it was extraordinary, and the period in which he lived was turbulent and fraught with tension. The Reluctant Rebel captures this, creating an extensive biography of a remarkable man and a detailed history of the world he inhabited. Swift’s life — his family history, childhood, education and career — are all meticulously covered. The tangled relationships he formed with Esther Johnson and Esther Vanhomrigh, whom he styled ‘Stella’ and ‘Vanessa’ respectively, particularly…

JONATHAN SWIFT: THE RELUCTANT REBEL

PRISONER OF THE SWISS

Author Daniel Culler and Rob Morris Publisher Casemate Price £20 Released Out now Once a nation of mercenaries, Switzerland cemented its infamous position as a neutral state during the Napoleonic Wars. In fact, such was its desire to remain impartial that it rigidly enforced the 1907 Hague Convention requirement that all foreign troops entering the country would be interned in camps during World War II, resulting in the imprisonment of 1,517 US airmen that sought asylum there during the struggle to liberate Europe. Daniel Culler was one of them. Feeling honour-bound to sign up in the wake of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, Culler became the first flight engineer in a bombing crew that flew 24 successful missions over Germany. But his luck wouldn’t last — his plane was…

PRISONER OF THE SWISS

HISTORY of WAR RECOMMENDS…

Churchill: Warrior Author Brian Lavery Price £25 Publisher Casemate When Winston Churchill was elected prime minister for the first time in 1940, Britain was already at war. He later wrote of the event: “I felt [...] that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour and for this trial”. Veteran history writer Brian Lavery’s new biography explores that past life in great detail, including Churchill’s time as a colonial soldier, a war correspondent covering the Boer War and as a long-serving politician. The author of the 2010 bestseller Empire of the Seas chronicles the British Bulldog’s many exploits and insightfully considers how Churchill’s military background and experience of command shaped his ability to win World War II.…

HISTORY of WAR RECOMMENDS…

THE RISE OF ROME: FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE PUNIC WARS

Author Kathryn Lomas Publisher Profile Books Price £25 Released Out now Starting in 1000 BCE and hurtling chronologically to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BCE, Kathryn Lomas takes you on a journey through the early years of one of history’s most famous states. Tales of political intrigue and turmoil are interspersed with comments on society and culture along with some of the key players. Despite its occasional dryness, one of the best things about this books is that it doesn’t require much prior knowledge. Latin terms like ‘quaestor’ and ‘hospes’ are all translated and explained, and a list of sources and references means that you can look further into everything in your own time. If you wish to explore further afield, there’s also a handy guide…

THE RISE OF ROME: FROM THE IRON AGE TO THE PUNIC WARS

THE SCANDALOUS REIGN OF CATHERINE THE GREAT

AUSTRALIA’S PEAKY BLINDERS The razor gangs’ turf war that kept 1920s Sydney on a knife edge ALEXANDER THE GREAT: THE COLLEGE YEARS Did the conqueror’s school lessons with Aristotle shape his rule? HAVE A BLAST IN ATOMIC CITY Inside the Vegas ‘detonation parties’ that taught America to love the bomb PLUS: Santa Anna: Napoleon of the West, The king’s pearl: Henry VIII and Mary I, The golden age of steam trains, Battle of Cape Econmus, History guide to 2018…

THE SCANDALOUS REIGN OF CATHERINE THE GREAT

ALONE IN BERLIN

01 Based on Hans Fallada’s fictionalised account of the real-life rebels, some of the film’s inaccuracies can be traced back to Fallada’s novel. In reality it was Elise’s brother who died, but both the novel and the film have changed this to the couple’s son. 02 Otto and Elise had been married for less than five years when war broke out and were in their mid and early 40s respectively when they died in 1943. At 62 and 58 years old, Gleeson and Thompson are almost 20 years older than their real-life counterparts. 03 For a city in the midst of a brutal conflict, Perez’s vision of Berlin looks surprisingly picturesque. It’s clean and bright, with one or two bucolic scenes that look as though they belong in the glossy…

ALONE IN BERLIN

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