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34 Articles

“ If ever an English monarch merited the byname ‘the Great’, surely it was the last of the Tudor line: Elizabeth I. During her reign, England successfully repelled a mighty Spanish Armada. Extravagant ‘accession day’ celebrations and new theatres, in which William Shakespeare first performed his peerless plays, revolutionised public entertainment. Extraordinary palaces and ‘prodigy houses’ were built – expressions of wealth and artistic exuberance. Groundbreaking trading and diplomatic ties were established with Islamic states across north Africa and the Middle East. English explorers ventured far into Asia and the Arctic, sowing the seeds of a vast British empire. And Elizabeth herself overcame the odds: as a child declared illegitimate and cut from the succession after the execution of her mother, Anne Boleyn, she faced a series of plots against…

The Elizabethan age

1558 Mary I dies on 17 November, and her half-sister, aged 25, succeeds to the throne as Elizabeth I. She immediately appoints Sir William Cecil (below) as her principal secretary and intimates that she intends to break with Rome (like her father Henry VIII) and to re-introduce the Protestant religious settlement of her half-brother, Edward VI. 1559 Elizabeth pushes her religious settlement through parliament: the Act of Supremacy, which declares her to be ‘Supreme Governor’ of the Church of England, and the Act of Uniformity, which demands conformity to a new Protestant English Prayer Book. The main task ahead is to persuade or compel the many Catholics in England to convert. 1560 1560 After Elizabeth sends military help to the Protestant ‘Lords of the Congregation’ against the Catholic regent of Scotland and her French allies, Cecil…

The Elizabethan age

The other Elizabethan England

Work The actor’s wife aunts her wealth This painting of 22-year-old Joan Alleyn, wife of actor Edward Alleyn and stepdaughter of theatre owner Philip Henslowe, provides artistic evidence of the growing wealth of the Elizabethan middle classes. In 1596, when Joan posed for this portrait, England’s economy was flourishing and, as a result, merchants and traders of all sorts were finding opportunities to expand their businesses and improve their lifestyles. They soon began commissioning portraits not only of themselves, but also of their wives – who were often critical to their success – doing the accounts and other administrative tasks. Joan’s portrait probably hung in the couple’s house as evidence of their rising status. She is shown here wearing typically middle-class clothes, including a tall black hat (possibly of felt or velvet) and embroidered…

The other Elizabethan England

The play’s one thing…

In 1567, London grocer John Brayne embarked on a new business venture. At a cost of about £20, he built England’s first theatre in a yard at the Red Lion, a farm in Whitechapel just outside the City of London. The venture was not a successful one. Though the exact circumstances have proved impossible to delineate, the Red Lion soon fell into disuse as a theatre. Undeterred, in 1576 Brayne – together with his brother-in-law James Burbage, father of the actor Richard Burbage, Shakespeare’s associate – opened a more successful venture, known simply as The Theatre. That opening marked the beginning of a flourishing era of theatrical performances in London. During the last three decades of Elizabeth’s reign, Londoners could attend a number of theatres – most famously The Globe, which opened…

The play’s one thing…

HOLD YOUR NOSES… IT’S THE ELIZABETHANS!

Traditionally, the past is something we look at from afar. The very act of ‘doing history’ is one of reaching for something that has gone and is therefore, by definition, out of reach. So it is hardly surprising that we approach its remains objectively, picking over them with a pair of metaphorical tweezers. But what would we feel if the past were not out of reach? Imagine how your ideas about the past would be different if you could get close up and personal with your forebears. What would you notice if you could see through their eyes, hear with their ears, and smell through their nostrils? What were the tastes and feelings of the past? Can we make any headway in trying to recover them? Adopting this approach is a particularly…

HOLD YOUR NOSES… IT’S THE ELIZABETHANS!

The visual world

For six months of every year there is less than 12 hours of daylight, and street lighting is almost unheard of in Elizabethan England, so time out of doors in autumn and winter is characterised by darkness. But dimness is also an aspect of being indoors, even in summer. Domestic glass is rare, because of the paucity of glassmakers in 16th-century England. Although the aristocracy have used glass since the late Middle Ages, and the Countess of Shrewsbury famously has “more glass than wall” at Hardwick Hall, most houses have only small windows to prevent massive heat loss in winter. Wooden shutters or small opaque screens of horn are used to cover the windows, so there is never much light inside. In winter, you will walk around a farmhouse or cottage in…

The visual world

The aural experience

In modern times there have been various brave attempts to recreate the ‘authentic’ sounds of the past by playing the music on instruments constructed to contemporary designs. As you will soon realise from experiencing sensations in Elizabethan England, even if you can recreate the authentic sound, you cannot recreate the experience of hearing that sound – because listening to music takes place in a different context in Elizabethan times. There is no backdrop of motor, train and air traffic; there are no blaring sirens, no recorded music or radio, and no hum of electrical appliances. In fact, there are very few loud noises. There is thunder; occasionally there is the report of a gun or cannon; and certain instruments such as large bells, trumpets and shawms (woodwind instruments like early oboes)…

The aural experience

The olfactory landscape

Popular culture would have you believe that all Elizabethans are smelly (like everyone else living before Jane Austen, except the Romans). In reality, the personal and public olfactory landscape is far more complex. At one end of the scale, if you are circumnavigating the world with Francis Drake in the years 1577–80, it is true that you will not bathe. Your hair and clothes will have lice, and you will stink to high heaven – but so will everyone else on the ship (as will the ship itself). Your breath will reek. But in the context of the psychological pressures of such a voyage, including the awareness that most of the crew will die along the way, your shipmates’ aroma is the least of your worries. At the other end of the…

The olfactory landscape

Feeling your way

The darkness we encountered in the visual world discussed on page 24 explains why Elizabethans rely on their sense of touch far more than we do in the modern world. In short, they often cannot see where they are going. Hence finding objects, moving from room to room or even making a visit to the outhouse is much more a matter of touch than sight. Another variation in feeling relates to the things with which people surround themselves. Clothes vary hugely in texture, from very fine linen to coarse canvas. At the top end of society the finest fabrics, such as silk, lawn and velvet, provide a much greater range of soft tactile sensations than the textiles available to those at the bottom, who have to make do with canvas, buckram,…

Feeling your way

Good and bad taste

It is said that there is no sauce quite like hunger. For this reason, you may safely assume that poor Elizabethans enjoy their plain meals just as much as the rich enjoy their feasts and banquets. Food is not as scarce as in the late medieval and early Tudor periods, and nowhere near as scarce as it was in early medieval times; nonetheless, you will be shocked at proportionately how expensive it is. Consider the price of meat in relation to a worker’s wage. On average, an Elizabethan sheep costs 3s – nine times as much as a worker’s daily wage in southern England – even though the largest sheep weigh about 60lbs, much less than half the weight of its modern descendants. You might like to ponder on that ratio:…

Good and bad taste

Fear and loathing

The past 50 years have been the most complacent and least fearful half-century ever experienced in Britain. People do not starve in their thousands. In the 21st century we do not have to live with the continual daily threat of plague (which killed approximately 250,000 Elizabethans) or influenza (the outbreak of which in 1557–59 killed about five per cent of England’s population – more than twice the proportion killed by the First World War and the influenza pandemic of 1918–19 combined). Most Elizabethan people who have children will see half of them die before they reach adulthood – if the parents themselves live long enough. Smallpox, malaria, tuberculosis and innumerable other diseases are rife and uncontrollable. Every family clutches at its Bible in fear of God’s fatal judgement – all too…

Fear and loathing

The dark side of Elizabethan life

Interest in Elizabeth I and her reign seems limitless, and invariably suffused with admiration – an attitude epitomised in The Times of 24 March 2003, on the quatercentenary of the queen’s death: “Tolerance found a patron and religion its balance, seas were navigated and an empire embarked upon and a small nation defended itself against larger enemies and found a voice and a purpose… Something in her reign taught us what our country is, and why it matters. And as her reign came to craft a sense of national identity that had not been found before, so she came to embody our best selves: courageous, independent, eccentric, amusing, capricious and reasonable, when reason was all. The greatest prince this country has produced was a prince in skirts.” In an ICM poll…

The dark side of Elizabethan life

GREAT PALACES OF ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND

Hampton Court Palace Her father’s pleasure complex In 1515 Thomas Wolsey began transforming Hampton Court from a Surrey country house into a magnificent palace – a process completed by Henry VIII, who took it for himself. Today it is the largest surviving Tudor palace in the world. Elizabeth visited many times as a young girl, and attended her half-sister Mary here during one of her phantom pregnancies. While staying at Hampton Court in 1562 Elizabeth, who had been queen for less than four years, contracted smallpox and almost died. She never forgave the palace, and seldom visited thereafter. She did, though, reserve some secret rooms for the practice of alchemy – the mystical ‘science’ that attempted to turn base metals into gold. hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace Hardwick Hall A rival’s triumph Built for the indomitable Elizabeth…

GREAT PALACES OF ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND

THE HISTORY ESSAY PERSONAL POLITICS IN ELIZABETH’S COURT

In the summer of 1592, Elizabeth I’s captain of the guard, Sir Walter Ralegh, and her maid of honour, Bess Throckmorton, were committed to the Tower of London after the queen was told of their clandestine marriage and the birth of their baby boy. This was neither the first nor the last time that Elizabeth punished her courtiers for marrying in secret, but the penalty in their case was among the most severe. Though released after a few months, Ralegh lost his offices, was banished from court, and waited five years before the queen consented to speak to him again. Bess remained imprisoned until the end of the year and was permanently excluded from the court. In October 1599, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex – another royal intimate – was…

THE HISTORY ESSAY PERSONAL POLITICS IN ELIZABETH’S COURT

Lettice Knollys was a favourite of Elizabeth I… Then she stole the queen’s sweetheart

The atmosphere within the queen’s apartments at the Palace of Whitehall was icily cold when, in late 1579, Lettice Knollys stood before Queen Elizabeth. The monarch raged at the woman in front of her in no uncertain terms. “As but one sun lightened the Earth, she would have but one queen in England,” Elizabeth seethed, before reputedly boxing Lettice’s ears and banishing her from court. What could Lettice have possibly done to provoke such a volcanic reaction? She had entered into a secret marriage without the queen’s consent – reason enough to provoke royal outrage. But what really fanned the flames of Elizabeth’s fury was the identity of the groom: Lettice’s husband was none other than the queen’s favourite and onetime suitor, Robert Dudley. It was a betrayal that Elizabeth would…

Lettice Knollys was a favourite of Elizabeth I… Then she stole the queen’s sweetheart

The countess, the courtier and the queen

Lettice Knollys WHEN WAS SHE BORN? On or around 6 November 1543 HOW DID SHE RISE TO PROMINENCE? Her grandmother was Elizabeth I’s aunt, Mary Boleyn, and her mother was a close companion of Elizabeth. Lettice served in Elizabeth’s household, where she is said to have been a favourite of the queen. WHO WERE HER LOVE INTERESTS? Lettice was married three times: to Walter Devereux, who died of dysentery in 1576; to Robert Dudley; and finally to Sir Christopher Blount, who was executed in 1601 for conspiring against the queen. DID SHE HAVE ANY CHILDREN? She had one son with Robert Dudley and five children with Walter Devereux. Of these, the most famous was Robert Devereux, who lost his head after leading the conspiracy that cost Sir Christopher Blount his life. WHEN DID SHE DIE? Christmas Day, 1634 Robert Dudley WHEN WAS…

The countess, the courtier and the queen

THE UNFATHOMABLE QUEEN

Elizabeth I is an icon. The Virgin Queen is more instantly recognisable even than her monstrously charismatic father, Henry VIII. But she is also an enigma. The image of ‘Gloriana’ is a mask – literally so, in the ‘mask of youth’ portraits painted in the last two decades of her life. In these paintings, Elizabeth’s unlined face remains ageless and changeless, unlike the sitter on which they were modelled. And it is a mask that was – and is – remarkably difficult to shift. As England’s sovereign, Elizabeth said a great deal. She gave speeches, and wrote letters, poems and prayers. Her comments, in public and private, were recorded by ministers, courtiers and ambassadors. But it is often difficult to be certain of what she actually meant. Her intellect is clear…

THE UNFATHOMABLE QUEEN

THE QUEEN’S DAY

The accession day of Queen Elizabeth II, 6 February, is usually marked with gun salutes at the Tower of London and elsewhere in the capital. The Queen herself generally shuns celebrations on that day, instead observing it privately – it is, of course, also the anniversary of the death of her father, George VI, in 1952. The current monarch’s approach is in stark contrast with that of the first Queen Elizabeth. National exigencies meant that, as her reign went on and the dangers to the realm mounted, spectacular national celebrations on ‘the Queen’s Day’ became increasingly critical – not simply for spectacle and festivity but for security and defence. She had come to the throne on 17 November 1558 following the death of her Catholic sister Mary I. For many of her…

THE QUEEN’S DAY

The royal sweetheart and the three-week marriage proposal

On Saturday 9 July 1575, at about 8pm, Elizabeth I arrived on horseback at Kenilworth Castle, the Warwickshire power base of her long-time favourite Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. As the queen passed through the castle gates, along the tiltyard and into the outer courtyard, she was met by actors reciting speeches of welcome and bearing symbolic gifts, including the keys to the castle. Trumpeters saluted her, and when Elizabeth reached the inner courtyard, dismounted her palfrey and made her way to her chamber, there was a peal of guns that could, it was said, be heard 20 miles away. For nearly three weeks the queen, her ladies-in-waiting and leading courtiers were housed at the castle and entertained by Dudley with diversions ranging from music, masques and dancing to tilting, hunting…

The royal sweetheart and the three-week marriage proposal

ELIZABETHANS & THE WORLD

Elizabeth’s war with England’s Catholics The violent persecution of priests and recusants Walter Ralegh: the heroic traitor How the queen’s one-time favourite fell from grace Eight surprising facts about the Spanish Armada Discover little-known aspects of the ill-fated invasion campaign The Tudors’ unlikely allies Why Elizabethan England forged new ties with Islamic lands How exploration laid the foundation of empire Follow in the footsteps of Tudor pioneers in Asia and the sub-Arctic Elizabeth’s Irish nemesis The earl whose audacious rebellion almost ended English rule in Ireland…

Elizabeth’s war with England’s Catholics

In 1828, builders removing a lintel over a doorway at Rushton Hall in Northamptonshire were surprised to see an old, beautifully bound book come down with the rubble. They decided to investigate, and knocked through a thick partition wall, exposing a recess about 5 feet (1.5 metres) long and 15 inches (40cm) wide. Inside, wrapped in a large sheet, was an enormous bundle of papers and books that had once belonged to Sir Thomas Tresham, a Catholic gentleman who lived during the reign of Elizabeth I. Other discoveries were made in other counties: a secret room chanced upon by a boy exploring a derelict wing of Harvington Hall, near Kidderminster, in 1894; a small wax disc bearing the imprint of a cross and a lamb (an Agnus Dei), found in a…

Elizabeth’s war with England’s Catholics

Catholic attempts on the queen’s life

Spain plans an invasion, 1571 The Ridolfi plot – named after the Florentine merchant who acted as the go-between for the Duke of Norfolk, Mary Stuart, Philip II and the pope – was a plan for a Spanish invasion of England and the substitution of Elizabeth with Mary. Roberto Ridolfi was known to the English government, and met with Elizabeth before heading for Rome. The plot was foiled when a courier was arrested at Dover. Norfolk was executed but Mary survived and Ridolfi later emerged as a papal senator. He clearly relished intrigue. Throckmorton’s sorry end, 1583 Francis Throckmorton was the linkman for a plot that might be seen as part of a continuum of intrigues sponsored by the powers of Catholic Europe in the 1580s. The aim, as with the Ridolfi plot,…

Catholic attempts on the queen’s life

Places to visit

Rushton Triangular Lodge, Northamptonshire english-heritage.org.uk A monument to the Trinity, a symbol of recusant resistance, a testament to the ego of Sir Thomas Tresham: this 1590s ‘warrener’s lodge’ is one of the strangest buildings in Britain. Mystical inscriptions and devices abound. Within a short distance are the priest-hole and oratory of Rushton Hall (now a hotel), and the haunting, unfinished Lyveden New Bield (National Trust), which was Tresham’s cross-shaped tribute to the Passion. Bar Convent, York, North Yorkshire bar-convent.org.uk England’s oldest living convent celebrates the Catholic heritage of the north of England as well as the life of the order’s founder, Mary Ward (1585–1645). Highlights of the convent’s exhibition, which reopened in 2015 after a major revamp, are an altar disguised as a bedstead (pictured) and a relic of Margaret Clitherow, the butcher’s wife from…

Places to visit

WALTER RALEGH THE HEROIC TRAITOR

Early one October morning in 1618, a prisoner walked from the Gatehouse gaol in Westminster to a scaffold in Old Palace Yard. Sir Walter Ralegh had embarked on his last journey. He faced his death with courage, delivering a speech of 45 minutes in which he paced to and fro, using the platform as a stage, stirring onlookers to a high pitch of religious fervour. Ralegh shared a joke with the executioner: touching the axe he laughed that here was a cure for every disease, a “sharp medicine”. When the nervous headsman did not proceed at their prearranged signal, Ralegh – his neck on the block – demanded an end: “What do you fear?” he cried. “Strike, man!” His head was severed at the second blow. The last hero and…

WALTER RALEGH THE HEROIC TRAITOR

Ralegh’s rise and fall

1554 Walter Ralegh is born at Hayes, near East Budleigh, Devon 1580 Ralegh assists in the slaughter of 600 Italian mercenaries and their Irish followers at Smerwick, on the Dingle peninsula, Ireland 1585 Ralegh is knighted by Queen Elizabeth I, and continues to acquire lucrative monopolies and other financial rewards 1591 He marries Bess Throckmorton, one of the queen’s ladies of the Privy Chamber. Elizabeth I is enraged and has the new husband and wife thrown in the Tower 1595 Ralegh searches, unsuccessfully, for gold and silver in Guiana (now largely in Venezuela). Claims the land for Elizabeth I 1596 Ralegh serves under the Earl of Essex at the sacking of the Spanish port of Cádiz 1603 At the succession of James I, Ralegh is arrested and condemned to death on a charge of treason. His life is spared, but he remains a…

Ralegh’s rise and fall

The last Elizabethan

At his death, Sir Walter Ralegh was considered the last of the Elizabethans. The Spanish envoy described him as the only surviving pirate of a “deceased virago”. Sellar and Yeatman, in that most perceptive of modern histories, 1066 and All That, suggested that he was executed for being left over from the previous reign. But even if such a creature ever existed, was Ralegh a typical Elizabethan? Many myths need debunking here. Ralegh did not introduce tobacco or potatoes into England or Ireland. He played no significant part in defeating the Spanish Armada. Far from being a ‘sea dog’ he was something of a ‘Jonah’, unlucky with winds and tides, and frequently seasick. A hypochondriac, weak in the legs, self-obsessed, full of self-pity, he never stopped imagining that his health was precarious.…

The last Elizabethan

8 SURPRISING FACTS ABOUT THE SPANISH ARMADA

For much of Elizabeth’s reign, the threat of an invasion of England by Spain was very real. Though Spanish King Philip II had been the queen’s brother-in-law (having married Mary I), relations between Catholic Spain and England – a Protestant nation under Elizabeth – had deteriorated, and from 1585 the two countries were at war. The following year, Philip began developing a scheme to send a fleet of nearly 130 ships from Spain to England, with the aim of escorting a 26,000-strong invasion army across the English Channel from Flanders. If the mission had succeeded, the future of Elizabeth I and her Protestant England would have looked very black indeed. Had the force landed as planned near Margate in Kent in summer 1588, it is likely that battle-hardened Spanish troops would…

8 SURPRISING FACTS ABOUT THE SPANISH ARMADA

A RESPLENDENT DRAKE

An illustrated contemporary broadside celebrates the exploits of Sir Francis Drake in his campaign against the Spanish. But though Drake was indeed successful in harassing Spanish ships (as well as circumnavigating the globe between 1577 and 1580), his motives were primarily mercenary. A licensed privateer, he looted treasure ships; during the defence against the Spanish Armada in 1588, he was accused of offloading booty when he should have been guiding English ships (see the previous article for more on this episode).…

A RESPLENDENT DRAKE

The Tudors’ unlikely allies

On 25 February 1570, a papal bull issued in Rome by Pope Pius V, entitled Regnans in Excelsis (‘Reigning on High’), excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I. The bull condemned “Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England” for “having seized on the kingdom and monstrously usurped the place of supreme head of the church in all England”. It concluded: “We do out of the fullness of our apostolic power declare the aforesaid Elizabeth as being a heretic and a favourer of heretics, and her adherents in the matters aforesaid, to have incurred the sentence of excommunication.” The bull’s consequences are well known. It divided English Catholics over whether or not to rebel against Elizabeth, while strengthening patriotic support for the queen and pushing her towards more aggressive Protestant policies at home and abroad. Pius’s…

The Tudors’ unlikely allies

Muslim stars of Shakespeare’s plays

By the 1580s, Elizabeth’s amicable relations with the Islamic world had drawn the attention of dramatists including Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Plays featuring Turks and Moors became a fashion. Between 1576 and 1603 more than 60 were written with Muslim characters, though ‘Muslim’ only entered the language in 1615; before then ‘Mahometans’, ‘Ottomites’, ‘Saracens’, ‘Moors’, ‘Pagans’ or ‘Turks’ were used interchangeably to describe Muslims. Shakespeare’s plays are full of references to Moors and Turks. In 1592 his first history play, Henry VI, Part 1, mentions ‘Mahomet’ (Muhammad); two years later, the villainous Aaron the Moor appeared in the revenge tragedy Titus Andronicus. Shakespeare put a different Moor onstage in The Merchant of Venice (1596): the Prince of Morocco, who tries unsuccessfully to woo the heroine Portia. Shakespeare’s interest in such characters…

Muslim stars of Shakespeare’s plays

THE PIONEERS WHO BLAZED THE TRAIL FOR EMPIRE

Exploration was sparked by a collapse in European markets for English goods Drake, Ralegh, Hawkins: some of the most famous names in English exploration belong to the Elizabethan period – yet these individuals did not make the biggest contributions to English exploration. They expanded English geographical horizons, but they were to a degree re-treading ground the Spanish had already explored. Until Elizabeth’s reign, England’s engagement with exploration was minimal when compared with every other western European country. By the time of Elizabeth’s accession in 1558, the Spanish and Portuguese between them had explored far into the interior of the Americas, Africa and Asia, and founded colonies all over the world, while even the French and the Germans had made persistent attempts at transoceanic colonisation. By the end of the 16th century, however, English…

THE PIONEERS WHO BLAZED THE TRAIL FOR EMPIRE

ELIZABETH’S IRISH NEMESIS

In the dying days of the 16th century, one man drove Elizabeth I to distraction, wrecked the career of one of her most celebrated captains, brought her nation close to bankruptcy, and threw the very survival of her administration in Ireland into grave doubt. That man was Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone. His story is one of the most remarkable in the history of Anglo-Irish relations – and the Nine Years’ War empowered by O’Neill’s uprising threatened England’s hold on the island. When Hugh was born, in about 1550, Ireland was a divided island – one whose history had been shaped by its English neighbour. In 1171, Henry II had launched a concerted invasion of Ireland, setting the scene for four centuries of considerable English influence, culminating with Henry VIII’s decision…

ELIZABETH’S IRISH NEMESIS

Where the Irish fought back…

…and what happened to Ulster after the war In the 16th century, Ulster was described “as the very fostermother and example of all the rebellions of Ireland”. The province had been least affected by the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland and remained its most Gaelic. But, in the wake of the defeat of Hugh O’Neill (left), that situation was to be turned on its head. After the flight of the Ulster lords into exile in 1607, the crown was able to undertake the massive plantation of the province, under which 80 per cent of clan lands was transferred to English and Scottish landholders for colonisation by British settlers. The city of London made a special investment in the project, developing the city and county of Londonderry. Within 50 years, Ulster had been culturally…

Where the Irish fought back…

Nicola Tallis on… The enduring appeal of the Elizabethan era

“During Elizabeth’s 44-year reign England was transformed into an increasingly wealthy cultural hub” The second half of the 16th century was an age of rapidly evolving culture, tumultuous politics and intrigue, religious conflicts, worldwide exploration and bitter power struggles. Small wonder, then, that the events of the turbulent Elizabethan era continue not only to fascinate but also to inspire a thirst for knowledge that is seemingly unquenchable. At the centre of this ever-changing world was one of the most famous queens in history: Elizabeth I. It is largely thanks to Elizabeth that curiosity about the period shows no signs of abating. And the queen was as much a source of fascination in her own lifetime as she is today – in no small part because she resisted conforming to expectations of a…

Nicola Tallis on… The enduring appeal of the Elizabethan era

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