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67 Articles

Welcome to HOW IT WORKS BOOK OF AIRCRAFT

The history of human aviation spans over a hundred years, from the first manned flight of the Wright Flyer in 1903, which flew a groundbreaking 260 metres, to the futuristic spacecraft of today that shuttle astronauts and payloads to the International Space Station. Today’s aircraft are constantly evolving and being upgraded; would the Wright brothers even recognise a Eurofighter Typhoon as a descendant of their Flyer? In this new edition of How It Works Book of Aircraft, we will bring to life a plethora of modern flying machines. Find out what it takes to become a pilot for the Red Arrows and how the Supermarine Spitfire became such a successful aircraft in the Military section. Discover how commercial airliners are becoming more and more efficient and what the next evolution…

Welcome to HOW IT WORKS BOOK OF AIRCRAFT

Orville and Wilbur Wright were dedicated to their task of developing powered flight. Meticulously tested, the Wright Flyer was constructed in Dayton, Ohio but failed to take off on the first tests carried out on 14 December 1903. It eventually managed to get airborne a few days later on 17 December and achieved a best of 260 metres (852 feet) as Wilbur and Orville took turns to pilot their invention. The aircraft was launched from a short monorail track by two modified bicycle wheel hubs. The engine was very basic and worked using a hand lever that could only open and close the fuel line rather than throttle. Prior to the Flyer, the brothers created various gliders from 1900 to 1903 that were tested without great success. Eventually, they found…

In the 1960s, aviation companies had a problem. With the popularity of aviation soaring for business, recreation and industry, the supply of aircraft was struggling to meet demand. But Boeing had a solution up its sleeve; the biggest civilian airplane ever built, the 747. Built in less than 16 months by a group of workers known as ‘the Incredibles’, the design came in three variations – passenger, cargo and passenger/freighter – and was first flown in 1968. By 1970, this new breed of jumbo jet had fitted seamlessly into the world’s air traffic and silenced critics. Since its inception, the 747s have appeared in a variety of models. The 747-400 was first flown in 1988 and is a combination of the earlier freight and passenger models. It is the bestselling…

Commonly known as the Stealth Bomber, the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit is a ground-breaking piece of aviation. The design was a giant leap forward in aviation technology and was first flown on 17 July 1989 before joining the US Air Force’s operational fleet in 1993. Four 19,000 pound thrust F118-GE engines allow the B-2 to cruise at high subsonic speeds and was, at its peak, the largest military programme at Boeing with 10,000 people employed on the project. The engine is so state of the art that it uses a temperature control system to minimise the aircraft’s thermal signature. A strategic, long-range heavy bomber, it only achieved full operational capacity in 2003, ten years after its introduction into the fleet. Twenty-one B-2s are now in operation and are located at…

In 1971 the skies of Britain were dominated by the sound of sonic booms. These were the results of a futuristic Anglo-French project known as Concorde. After 5,000 hours worth of testing (making it the most tested aircraft of all time), it was ready. Seating 100 people, Concorde represented the next step in commercial travel. It was so fast that it still holds the record for the shortest transatlantic crossing, a scintillating 2 hours 52 minutes and 59 seconds. The aircraft accomplished this by utilising ‘reheat’ technology, which injects extra fuel at takeoff. This innovative technology helped the Concorde fly around the globe in 1992, on the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’ journey. It managed to complete the journey in just under 33 hours. The Concorde’s final flight was on 24…

The statistics… Enola Gay Length: 30.2m (99ft) Weight: 31,400kg (69,000lb) Wingspan: 43m (141.3ft) Max speed: 588km/h (365mph) Max altitude: 9,710m (31,850ft) Years in service: One ‘Enola Gay;’ and ‘Little Boy’. Two names that are now synonymous with changing the city of Hiroshima and the whole world forever. Named after pilot Paul W. Tibbets’ mother, Enola Gay was a B-29 bomber built under the top-secret ‘Silverplate’ programme. Part of a batch of 15 bombers, it was chosen to fly the first ever atomic combat mission. The weapon would be known as ‘Little Boy’ and was a 15-kiloton bomb. Taking off at 2.45am local time, it arrived in Iwo Jima at 6.05am and armed its payload. After Little Boy was dropped 11.5 miles from the detonation point, the aircraft turned to make its hasty escape. As the atomic bomb sent…

Lockheed M10 Electra

The statistics… Lockheed Electra 10E Length: 11.8m (38.7ft) Weight: 3,220kg (7,100lbs) Wingspan: 16.7m (55ft) Max speed: 312km/h (194mph) “The operation ran into trouble and Earhart and the Lockheed Model 10 disappeared” Built as a response to the Douglas DC-2 and the Boeing 247, Lockheed was one of the companies transforming commercial aviation in interwar USA. Twin engine, the plane was originally intended for commercial use and could accommodate ten passengers and two crew. Before being used by Earhart, Northwest Airlines flew the plane in its fleet in the late 1930s and it was also taken on by European and Australian firms. The aircraft’s most famous moment however, was undoubtedly its final journey. The plane used on the voyage was actually a modified version of the original model. More fuel tanks were added to the aircraft, increasing the…

Lockheed M10 Electra

LZ 129 Hindenburg

The statistics… LZ 129 Hindenburg Launch date: 4 March 1936 Length: 245m (803.8ft) Diameter: 41.2m (135.1ft) Max speed: 135km/h (84mph) Crew: 40 flight officers, 12 stewards and cooks Years in service: One year and two months In the first few decades of the 20th century, giant airships filled the sky. They were the preferred transport of the rich and famous and were particularly popular in Germany, where Zeppelin airships were all the rage. The Hindenburg was constructed solely for transcontinental transportation and after its maiden flight, became the largest object ever to fly at a mammoth 2.1 million cubic metres (7 million cubic feet). The airship finally got airborne after financial support by the Nazi Government and its maiden flight to the USA occurred on 31 March 1936. By the end of the year it had crossed the…

LZ 129 Hindenburg

The statistics… Fokker DR.I Launch date: 1917 Length: 5.77m (18.93ft) Weight: 406kg (895lb) Wingspan: 7.20m (23.62ft) Max speed: 165km/h (103mph) Max altitude: 6,095 miles (19,997ft) Number produced: 320 “The fighter remains an evocative symbol of the dogfights over the Western Front” Remembered as one of the greatest aircraft of the First World War, the Fokker DR.I filled British and French hearts with dread. Powerful and highly manoeuvrable, opposing pilots quickly learnt that it was not be taken lightly, especially when it was being piloted by Manfred von Richthofen, the German fighter ace nicknamed ‘the Red Baron’. As the war progressed, the triplane was hampered by structural issues and only 320 were produced. It could only last for a total of 80 minutes in the air on one tank of fuel and they were grounded completely for a period in the…

Apache Helicopter

A nightmare for tanks and ground troops alike, the Apache has revolutionised modern warfare. An immensely powerful war machine, the Apache is feared across the globe and can spring into action at any time, day or night, rain or shine. The AH-64 is a stalwart of the US and British militaries and has been used with great success in Iraq, Afghanistan and Kosovo. The Gulf War in particular saw the Apache come into its own, with the Iraqi tanks no match for a combined AH-64 and F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter assault. The gunship is effective on land, sea and air and is able to quickly respond to any skirmish, making it an ideal rapid response unit that can lead counterattacks. The design has proved so popular that it has been…

Apache Helicopter

“The design was so good that the X-1 provided inspiration for the space programme” The statistics… Bell X-1 Launch date: 1946 Length: 9.45m (31ft) Weight: 3,674kg (8,100lb) Wingspan: 8.54m (28ft) Max speed: 1,540km/h (957mph)/ Mach 1.45 Max altitude: 21,900m (71,900ft) US Air Force pilot, Captain Charles E Yeager, broke the speed of sound on the 14 October 1947 in this very aircraft. Attaining a speed of 1,127 kilometres (700 miles) per hour or Mach 1.06, the plane, nicknamed Glamorous Glennis after the pilot’s wife, entered the record books. The X-1 wasn’t launched in the orthodox way and was instead propelled via air-launch from the bomb bay of a Boeing B-29. The record attempt wasn’t the last of the X-1’s record breakers, though. On 26 March 1948, it reached the highest velocity and altitude of a manned airplane up to…

Supermarine Spitfire

One of the most enduring images of the Second World War, the Spitfire is credited with saving the British Isles from the threat of German invasion. Fast, manoeuvrable and with an iconic engine sound, the Spitfire combined well with the Hawker Hurricane against the threat of the Messerschmitts. The Battle of Britain wasn’t the Spitfire’s only major contribution. It served the Allies with distinction over the course of the war, becoming the most widely produced British fighter of the war. It was constantly upgraded to battle the best the Luftwaffe had to offer and fought in every theatre of the war. D-Day and the invasion of Sicily wouldn’t have happened if it wasn’t for the excellent air support the Spitfire’s provided. A Seafire version was created specifically for use in…

Supermarine Spitfire

Spirit of St Louis

The statistics… Spirit of St Louis Launch date: 1927 Length: 8.41m (27.7ft) Weight: 2,330kg (5,135lb) Wingspan: 14.02m (46ft) Max speed: 200km (120 miles) After the Wright Brothers and their contemporaries had made flight achievable, aviators competed to take aviation to an even higher level. Charles A. Lindbergh was one of these men and in May 1927 competed for $25,000 to be the first to cross the Atlantic non-stop. French hotel owner Raymond Orteig had a great passion for flying and offered the best pilots in the world the cash prize. Lindbergh and the Spirit of St Louis were the ideal team to undertake the task. The plane had been specifically constructed for the mission and in test flights it managed to break the transcontinental record by flying from San Diego to New York in 21 hours and…

Spirit of St Louis

The first powered flight in 1903, by Orville Wright, covered a distance of just 37 metres (121 feet). He could have taken off and landed – twice – across the wings of an Airbus A380. In the 110 years since that flight, engines have moved from pistons to turbo jets; construction materials have switched from wood and cloth to aluminium alloys and carbon fibre; and wing design has dropped the draughtsman’s table in favour of computational fluid dynamics. For passenger aircraft, increasing size offers greater economies of scale; large planes can fly farther without stopping and they use less fuel per passenger-mile. That’s true for cargo planes as well but truly huge cargo planes can carve themselves a niche even when the cost per ton is higher. That’s because some loads…

AEROBATIC DISPLAYS

DID YOU KNOW? The Red Arrows, whose motto is “Éclat” meaning brilliance, are based at RAF Scampton in Lincolnshir Anyone who’s seen the Red Arrows or the Blue Angels perform will know why many consider these pilots to be the world’s best. They execute death-defying stunts at breakneck speeds; flying low to the ground and experiencing g-forces that makes their heads feel like 20-kilogram (44-pound) balls. They manage not only to control their aircraft, but also to work perfectly in a team, pushing themselves and their aircraft to the limit. The Blue Angels – the US Navy’s flight demonstration squadron – and Red Arrows – the UK’s Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team – have very interesting origins. After World War II ended, the US chief of naval operations, Admiral Chester Nimitz, was keen…

AEROBATIC DISPLAYS

Death-defying displays

“The first five Red Arrows planes (Reds 1 to 5) are the front part of the overall formation, known as ‘Enid’” Both the Red Arrows and the Blue Angels update their show routine each year, which typically lasts between 20 and 30 minutes. They prepare three different displays and choose which one to perform by examining the weather conditions. A ‘full’ or ‘high’ show will be performed in clear weather, when the cloud base is over 1,372 metres (4,500 feet) high. This allows a full, looping display to be carried out and means that even at the top of each loop, the planes will remain visible. If the cloud base is lower than this and conditions are overcast, a ‘rolling’ or ‘low’ display is performed. When the weather is particularly bad and…

Death-defying displays

DISPLAY MANOEUVRES

Spitfire Reversal Whirlwind The Whirlwind is a brand new manoeuvre for the 2015 Red Arrow displays and features all nine jets performing a roll followed by a Blackbird loop. Rollbacks Red 2 will pull out of the Diamond Nine formation and perform a full 360-degree roll around Red 4 and then himself outside of Red 4. At the same time, Red 3 will perform an identical manoeuvre around Red 5. The difficulty here is to keep the roll as tight as possible, and to time the rolls so that they are the same speed and look the same to the crowd. Vixen Break All planes fly directly towards the crowd, before breaking in different directions up and away from the crowd, pulling up to 7g. This is often a crowd favourite, but is one of the…

DISPLAY MANOEUVRES

Inside the moves

All of the manoeuvres performed by the Blue Angels are difficult in their own way, but some of the stunts that look the hardest are actually the easiest. An example of this is the high speed-crossing manoeuvre, which is actually much easier to do than rolling into formation. This may look graceful, but it requires much more skill to perfect. “The high speed-crossing manoeuvre is much easier than rolling into formation” Fat Albert Every show requires a huge behind-the-scenes effort. The Blue Angels use a C-130 Hercules to carry spare parts and support the many personnel that make their displays possible. Affectionately known as “Fat Albert”, it has a range of 3,862 kilometres (2,400 miles) and can carry a colossal 20,412-kilogram (45,000-pound) payload. 33 YEARS OLD AVERAGE AGE OF A BLUE ANGEL PILOT 68 NUMBER…

Inside the moves

Blue Angels versus Red Arrows

Blue Angel: F/A-18 Hornet Find out about the Blue Angel F/A-18’s most important features “Efficient and reliable communications are important for the Blue Angels,” says Kyetta Penn, aviation electronics technician for the Blue Angels. “It is vital that they are able to talk to each other during a display and also to the ground staff so we know what’s happenings.” GPS is also absolutely vital so that their location can be pinpointed, while radar enables the pilots to see exactly what is going on around them. “They can make sure they are clear to carry out their display and that there are no other aircraft in their airspace,” Penn adds. Although every effort is made to ensure the pilot’s safety, things can go wrong. Recently, part of Mark Tedrow’s F/A-18 became detached mid-flight, calling…

Blue Angels versus Red Arrows

STAYING SAFE IN THE SKY

The purpose of the Red Arrows and the Blue Angels is to thrill millions of spectators every year, but they never compromise on pilot safety. Due to the nature of their flying and the high number of shows they perform, accidents do happen, although they are less regular than they were when the aerobatic teams first performed. By studying both the pilots and the planes themselves, both teams are now aware of exactly how far man and machine can be pushed. Both the Blue Angel and the Red Arrow pilots wear specific safety equipment which enables them to perform their amazing displays with the minimum amount of danger. Combating g-forces We measure gravity in terms of how much acceleration a force applies to an object. During some of their daring manoeuvres, aerobatic…

STAYING SAFE IN THE SKY

CELEBRATING 100 YEARS OF FIGHTER PLANES

From daring dogfights over World War I France, to the computer-powered prowess of the modern era’s jet fighters, the history of aerial warfare is nearly as old as flight itself. In 1915, Dutch engineer Anton Fokker devised an interrupter gear, a simple mechanism that allowed a fixed machine gun to fire through a plane’s running propeller blades. The first plane to use this was the Fokker Eindecker, which was so effective it began what the British Royal Flying Corps referred to as the ‘Fokker Scourge’. This sparked an international race to create faster, more manoeuvrable and ever-more destructive aircraft. By the end of the Great War, the tactical advantages of maintaining air superiority were well established and by 1939 and the dawn of the Second World War, another leap in aerial combat…

CELEBRATING 100 YEARS OF FIGHTER PLANES

Modern-day tech

Ever since the Messerschmitt Me 262, nicknamed the Swallow, first took flight in World War II, the jet age has seen fighter-plane technology soar. One key difference between the fighters of today and their ancestors is the need for flexibility. While warplanes were previously designed for specific tasks – such as fighter bombers, escort, or reconnaissance – today’s aircraft are expected to perform a range of roles, even simultaneously. For example, the Eurofighter Typhoon carries over a dozen brackets under its fuselage. This enables it to carry any combination of air-to-air or ground-attack armament, or extra fuel pods for prolonged sorties, fulfilling the potential for every combat role. With machines becoming ever faster and weapons systems leaving little to no room for error, even the lightning reactions of the hardiest flying…

Modern-day tech

Evolution of the fighter plane

Almost as soon as we were able to fly, we have been inventing new ways to destroy one another in the air. Aerial combat has come a long way from pilots leaning out of their cockpits and taking pot shots at one another with pistols. War may be hell, but it has also been the ideal breeding ground for rapid growth in aviation technology. Certain milestones stand out that have shaped the modern military craft we know today; retractable landing gear, enclosed cockpits, internal weapons systems, jet engines, ejector seats, heads-up displays and more. Here, two landmark aircraft show off their innovative features, giving a sense of how they took new technology to battle. Grumman F-14A Tomcat A cat with formidable claws – in the shape of sidewinder missiles and cutting-edge avionics DID YOU KNOW? The…

Evolution of the fighter plane

On board the Warthog

The A-10 Thunderbolt is a single-seat, close-air support fighter jet that also goes by the names Warthog and Tankbuster. Development for the aircraft began in 1967 and its first flight was in 1972. There are several reasons why the A-10 has proved popular enough to weather 40-plus years of advancing military tech – chief among them its combat versatility and high survival rate. The A-10 boasts a short takeoff and landing capacity with a range of nearly 1,300 kilometres (800 miles). Commonly used for troop support and ground attacks, it can loiter for long periods at low speeds and altitudes below 300 metres (985 feet) and it’s capable of soaking up as much damage as it can dish out. Indeed, the A-10 can take direct hits from armour-piercing and explosive shells,…

On board the Warthog

Supermarine Spitfire

Inside the Spitfire What made this aircraft so spectacular? Designed in the technologically fervent and innovatory melting pot of the Second World War, the Supermarine Spitfire became the fighter plane of the times. With its simple lines, elegant frame and superb aerodynamics, the Spitfire was to live on in the minds of generations during the war and for many decades to come. The Supermarine Spitfire was the brainchild of aeronautical engineer Reginald Mitchell, who led a dedicated and talented team of designers. Originally planned as a short-range air-defence fighter, the Spitfire was built for speed and agility, traits that it was to need in the explosive dogfights it was to partake in as it met enemy fighters and bombers. Building a fighter plane, though, is more complex than listing desirable traits however, and…

Supermarine Spitfire

Lancaster Bomber

Arguably one of the most famous heavy bombers of The Second World War, the Avro-built Lancaster bomber undertook some of the most dangerous and complex missions yet encountered by the RAF. Primarily a night bomber but frequently used during the day too, the Lancasters under Bomber Command flew some 156,000 sorties during the war, dropping 609,000 tons of bombs. Among these bombs was the famous ‘bouncing bomb’ designed by British inventor Barnes Wallis, a payload that would lead the Lancaster to remain famed long after 1945. We take a look inside a Avro Lancaster to see what made it so successful. Inside a Lancaster bomber The statistics… Lancaster bomber Crew: 7 Length: 21.18m Wingspan: 31.09m Height: 5.97m Weight: 29,000kg ) Powerplant: 4 x Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V12 engines Max speed: 280mph Max range: 3,000 miles Max altitude: 8,160m Armament: 8 x .7.7mm Browning…

Lancaster Bomber

“ The Sea Harrier squadron achieved this due to their high manoeuvrability” The British Aerospace Sea Harrier was the purpose-built naval variant of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier strike fighter, an aircraft famed for its vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) and short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) capabilities. It worked by adopting the revolutionary singleengine thrust vectoring technology of the regular harrier (see ‘Degrees of power’ boxout) and partnering it with a modified fuselage – to allow the installation of the superb Blue Fox radar system – bubble-style canopy (larger, allowing greater visibility) and a significantly improved arms load out. These factors, partnered with the aircraft carrier’s ability to launch the aircraft from its ski-jump, allowed the Sea Harrier to perform to a high standard at sea, carrying more weight, detecting enemies sooner…

“ Over 1,000 were lost in the war, either through accidents or enemy attacks” Among the most iconic vehicles of American operations in Vietnam was the multi-functional Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopter, better known as a Huey. With a flexible design, the Huey helicopter was constantly adapted as a rapid troop transport, medevac, supply transport, as well as a gunship. In Vietnam, the American forces were able to strike deep into enemy territory using Hueys, which had an effective range of up to 510 kilometres (317 miles). Parachute drops were hardly ever used during the entire war, mainly due to the hazards of dropping men over thick jungle. Helicopters, on the other hand, were able to deploy units more precisely in designated clearings. At the Battle of Ia Drang (1965), Hueys were used…

“ It was famed for its ability to pass the sound barrier, going supersonic in a shallow dive” The first British fighter to be fitted purely with missiles, rockets and bombs – rather than the heavy calibre machine guns relied upon in WWI and WWII – the Sea Vixen was a first generation jet fighter employed by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy. It was famed for its ability to pass the sound barrier, going supersonic when in a shallow dive (hitting a top speed of 690mph) and saw action in multiple missions in the Middle East and Africa during the Sixties and Seventies. Designed to be deployed from aircraft carriers as an all-weather fighter and high-speed reconnaissance jet, the Sea Vixen worked by partnering the reinforced twin-boom tail layout…

“ Since the first flight the Lynx has been continually upgraded and developed” The Westland Lynx forms the backbone of the British Army and Navy helicopter forces. Entering military service in 1978, it had already set world speed records during testing. Introduced as a utility helicopter in 1971, the Lynx is a twin gas turbine-powered, two-pilot aircraft, with advanced control systems, a four-blade, semi-rigid rotor and, thanks to the fundamental stability and unrivalled agility of the basic airframe, it has performed in almost every role imaginable. From troop transport, armed escort and anti-tank warfare with the Army Air Corps, to anti-submarine warfare and maritime attack with the Fleet Air Arm, and in many similar roles across the globe, the Lynx is used by the militaries of over a dozen countries worldwide. This helicopter…

Strategic bombers

The battlefield has changed. Now, more than ever before, the theatre of war is in flux, rebuilding itself minute-by-minute, breaking down the conventional barriers of geography, geometry and time. Weapons systems are co-evolving along with defence systems at a ferocious rate, fuelled by the continued, perpetual rage of a segregated planet. The relationship between organic and inorganic matter is becoming fused, co-dependent and augmented, in order to generate the versatility demanded when fighting in the 21st Century. Fluidity and reaction speed is now paramount, for if you have the inability to engage immediately on a global scale, the parameters shift and the chance dissipates. Strategic bombers are positioned at the leading edge of this technological and logistical war, built to offer the range, payload, durability and speed to engage a hostile…

Strategic bombers

F-35 Lightning II

5 TOP FACTS F-35 Lightning II Birth 1 The F-35 was born out of the joint strike fighter (JSF) programme, which was initiated to create an aircraft that would replace the F-16, A-10, F/A-18 and AV-8B tactical fighter jets. X-35 2 The prototype F-35 was the Lockheed Martin X-35, which narrowly beat a rival design from Boeing (X-32), despite both aircraft exceeding or meeting the JSF requirements. DoD 3 Interestingly, the F-35 designation of the Lightning II is out of sequence with standard DoD numbering. It was supposed to be named the F-24 instead. Alliance 4 There are eight global partners in the F-35’s development along with the USA: the UK, Italy, the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway and Turkey. LiftSystem 5 The STOVL variant of the F-35 Lightning II uses the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, an innovative propulsion system that allows for…

F-35 Lightning II

Anatomy of the F-35 Lightning II

DID YOU KNOW? The F-35 has the capability to carry and launch a B-61 nuclear bomb “The F-35’s LiftSystem allows for the main engine exhaust to be redirected for direct vertical lift” The statistics… F-35A Crew: 1 Length: 15.7m (51.4ft) Wingspan: 10.7m (35ft) Height: 4.3m (14.2ft) Weight: 13,300kg (29,300lb) Powerplant: 1 x Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan Dry thrust: 125kN (28,000lbf) Thrust with afterburner: 191kN (43,000lbf) Max speed: Mach 1.6 (1,930km/h; 1,200mph) Max range: 2,220km (1,379mi) Max altitude: 18,288m (60,000ft) Thrust/weight: 0.87 g-limit: +9 g Guns: 1 x General Dynamics GAU-22/A Equalizer 25mm four-barrelled Gatling cannon Hardpoints: 6 x external pylons, 4 x internal pylons Max payload: 8,100kg (18,000lb) Armament: Air-to-air, air-to-ground, anti-ship History of multirole fighter jets The F-35 is the culmination of more than 30 years of development into producing a single, king-of-all-trades fighter plane 1979 Panavia Tornado The first multi-role fighter to be produced, the Panavia Tornado – across its…

Anatomy of the F-35 Lightning II

Arguably the main competitor to the F-35 Lightning II, the Russian-made Sukhoi T-50 is an extremely advanced, twin-engine, multi-role jet fighter that, aside from being a top-level black project (in other words, highly hush-hush), promises to deliver an insane top speed, range and payload. Power, which is titanic – 267 kilonewtons (66,000 pounds-force) of thrust on afterburner – comes courtesy of two Saturn 117 turbofan jet engines. The thrust has been drastically increased since the previous AL-31 powerplant and this not only allows the T-50 to easily surpass Mach 2 (a top speed of 2,500 kilometres, or 1,500 miles, per hour) but also supercruise – continuously fly at supersonic speeds without engaging the afterburner. The reason for the twin-engine setup, as well as the supersized fuel tanks, is to help fulfil the…

Eurofighter Typhoon

The Eurofighter Typhoon is currently one of the most agile aircraft in the world. It is so agile, in fact, that attempting to blow it out the skies is like trying to make a mile-long sniper shot in high wind. Why? It was built to be fundamentally aerodynamically unstable and, if it were not for its advanced fly-by-wire control system generating artificial stability, would be too much for even the most experienced pilot to handle. This instability, however, allows for pilots to perform some physics-bending manoeuvres at just plain stupid speeds – read: upwards of Mach 2 – delivering them a combative edge and helping to ensure total air supremacy. Of course, agility alone can only take you so far – especially so when the hardware needs to fulfil almost every…

Eurofighter Typhoon

5 TOP FACTS Drone tech Also known as 1 The name drone refers to any aircraft without a pilot on board. They are also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), remote piloted aircraft (RPA) or unpiloted air systems (UAS). Future swarms 2 There are over 4,000 different UAVs in circulation on the global market and the FAA estimates that as many as 7,500 small commercial drones could be operational in US airspace by 2020. Friendly drones 3 In Britain, manufacturers have suggested painting drones in bright colours as a way to make them appear friendlier and less reminiscent of warzones. The first drone 4 The first powered UAV was the “Aerial Target” invented by Archibald Montgomery Low in 1917. It was launched using compressed air from the back of a lorry. Control methods 5 Drones can be controlled in one of…

The agility and efficiency of these incredible machines often means they are better equipped than humans or other vehicles for humanitarian tasks . From transporting aid to spotting someone in need, there is a variety of potentially life-saving drone aircraft projects that are currently in development. One such initiative is the LifeLine Response app, a personal panic button that will summon a drone if you are in distress. If you are concerned about your safety, you can simply load the app and keep your thumb pressed on the screen or set a timer. If you get into trouble, you can release your thumb or fail to deactivate the timer, and the police will be called and a drone deployed to your location using GPS. The idea is that the drone, which can…

Drones such as the Parrot AR and the DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ have added a thrilling new dimension to personal photography and filmmaking. These clever gadgets are becoming more and more affordable for amateurs looking to capture Hollywood-style footage from unique angles. A Parrot AR. Drone, for example, will only set you back around £320 ($300) and has a built-in camera that can shoot 720-pixel high-definition video. It generates its own Wi-Fihotspot so you can control it from up to 50 metres (165 feet) away via an app on your smartphone or tablet. The app also shows a live stream of the video being captured and lets you change its direction by simple tilting your device. It can even perform impressive flips in mid-air, and you can program automatic movements…

ANIMAL PROTECTORS

As well as helping to save the lives of humans, drones can also come to the rescue of animals in the wild. The Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya is East Africa’s largest black rhino sanctuary but has lost several rhinos to poachers in recent years. They have now teamed up with drone company Airware to see if unmanned aircraft can help protect this endangered species. A prototype Aerial Ranger drone, featuring a camera that can deliver real-time video and thermal imaging to a team on the ground, has been tested during the day and night to respond to poaching incidents. Ol Pejeta only has around 150 rangers, each having to cover 2.4 square kilometres (0.93 square miles) of the 364-square-kilometre (140.5-square-mile) sanctuary. This makes response times to poaching incidents very…

ANIMAL PROTECTORS

THE STATS TRIMBLE UX5 FLIGHT TIME 50min MAX 750m ALTITUDE SPEED 80km/h WINGSPAN100cm WEIGHT 2.5kg DID YOU KNOW? California’s Casa Madrona Hotel uses drones to deliver champagne to guests in their $10,000-a-night luxury suite The advancements in drone technology have been extremely beneficial for industry. From engineering and surveying to mining and agriculture, a variety of markets are embracing this new tool to improve day-to-day operations. The Trimble UX5 is one of the leading surveying and mapping drones being used by many companies. It features a 16.1-megapixel camera for taking several overlapping high-resolution images, which are then layered together by specialist image-editing software to collate a map. By taking several photos from different locations, triangulation can be used to determine accurate coordinates and create three-dimensional plans of the area free from distortion. This proves invaluable when planning new infrastructure,…

HOW TO BUILD A PLANE

STEP 1: Design and testing Before building can begin, the aircraft must first be designed in great detail. Thousands of engineers across the world often work together to design one plane, and it can take several years to get it right. When designing an aircraft, there are four main areas to consider. First it must be aerodynamic, so that air flows around it with as little resistance as possible. To test this, engineers create computer simulations of the plane and examine how airflow and pressure will affect the body and wings when it is in flight. They then build a scale model of the aircraft and place it in a wind tunnel, where air is blown towards it at varying speeds in order to test its flight performance. Next they must design the…

HOW TO BUILD A PLANE

The luxury of the Lineage 100 jet

The best private jets offer more than just rows of seating and the Lineage 1000 includes a shower room, a double bed, a lounge and an office, a bar and almost everything else you need in a space that is three times larger than traditional business jets. It can seat up to 19 people in upper class comfort and the interior has been built to include five privacy areas, Wi-Fi and real-time flight displays, all thanks to the larger space and innovative interior design. On top of this the turbofan engine technology and fuselage interior design ensure low noise for passengers. Safety has not been ignored and the pilot has a CMC (central maintenance computer) at hand to predict potential problems and offer solutions, plus an enhanced vision system to improve…

The luxury of the Lineage 100 jet

The world’s largest passenger jet

Ferrying travellers all over the globe is an expensive business for the world’s airlines, so it makes sense that they would want to pack as many passengers as possible onto each aircraft, reducing the number of flights they need to make. Thanks to its double-decker design, the Airbus A380 is capable of carrying up to 853 passengers at a time, if it is in a single-class cabin configuration. That’s over 150 more than the aircraft’s competitor, the Boeing 747-8. Most A380s, however, feature four separate classes, with economy and premium economy on the lower deck and the more spacious business and first class upstairs, which reduces the passenger number to 544. This is still a 40 per cent increase on the 747-8’s four-class capacity. As well as being the largest passenger…

The world’s largest passenger jet

THE NEW CONCORDE

In 1976 we could fly commercially from London to New York in just three and a half hours. That’s over 5,550 kilometres (3,460 miles) at an average speed of 27 kilometres (17 miles) per minute. For context, the same journey in a Mini Metro travelling continuously at 97 kilometres (60 miles) per hour would take close to 58 hours (almost two and a half days) – and that’s not considering the fact a Mini can’t fly! Today, crossing the ‘pond’ – ie the Atlantic – takes more like seven and a half hours, a trip that definitely puts the ‘long’ into long-haul flight. So, this raises the question: what went wrong? A one-word answer is sufficient: Concorde. The Concorde supersonic jet, the piece of technology that allowed such outrageous flight times…

THE NEW CONCORDE

Solar-powered aircraft

As the search for renewable and carbon-neutral forms of energy intensifies, solar energy is leading the way in fuelling the next generation of aircraft. One aircraft breaking boundaries in this area is the Solar Impulse 2. This incredible machine is set to launch a non-stop, round-the world trip powered only by the Sun. It will do this by using 72-metre (236-foot) wide wings, each of which will be carrying over 8,500 solar cells, powering four electric motors and four lithium batteries. Despite this astonishing wingspan, the entire aircraft will only weigh 2,300 kilograms (5,071 pounds), about as heavy as a large great white shark. Another major player in the world of solar powered aviation is Solar Flight. Their newest project is Sunseeker Duo, which is the only two-seater solar-powered aeroplane in…

Solar-powered aircraft

Hot-air balloons

A hot-air balloon consists of three basic parts: an envelope big enough to displace a large amount of air, burners beneath the envelope to heat the air inside, and a basket in which to sit back and enjoy the ride. The scientific principle that enables this lift is convection, or heat transfer. Heating the air inside the envelope causes it to expand, forcing some of the air out of the envelope. The weight of the air inside then decreases, making the balloon lighter and giving it some lift. Once the burner has been shut off, however, the air inside cools and contracts, causing cold air to rush in from below, weighing the envelope down and causing the balloon to descend. If the burner is powered up intermittently, the balloon can maintain…

Hot-air balloons

On board a cargo plane

Cargo planes – whether used in the private, military or commercial sphere – are fixed-wing vehicles that have usually been designed with haulage in mind or have been converted from standard aircraft. Passenger planes commonly have a specialised hold that can store around 150 cubic metres (over 5,000 cubic feet) of freight, found on the underside of the craft. Dedicated freight planes don’t need the seats or any of the other amenities on commercial flights – that said, their design amounts to much more than a hollowed-out passenger plane. To make the most efficient use of the space available, the floor is lined with a walkway and electronic rollers that allow prepackaged pallets to be rolled back as far as possible, without the need for a forklift. Large cargo bay doors…

On board a cargo plane

Boeing 787 Dreamliner

At first glance the brand-new Boeing 787 Dreamliner appears to be nothing special. A new mid-sized jetliner that through its conventional design, standard power output and modest maximum range seems to, for the most part, blend in with the crowd. Just another commercial passenger jet introduced to a market hit severely by the worldwide recession. A multimillion pound piece of technology that changes nothing. But if you believe that, then you couldn’t be more wrong… That is because, as is common with most groundbreaking new technologies and ideas, the devil is in the details. Indeed, the Boeing 787 is arguably a slice of the future today, both literally (its service life is predicted to extend up to 2028) and metaphorically. The latter comes courtesy of it being the first aircraft to…

Boeing 787 Dreamliner

Anatomy of the Dreamliner

Evolution of the jetliner We select some of the high points in the development of the commercial jetliner 1945 Vickers VC.1 Viking A British short-range airliner derived from the Wellington bomber, the Viking was the first pure jet transport aircraft. 1952 DH-106 Comet The Comet was the world’s first commercial jet airliner to reach production. It was developed by the de Havilland company in England. 1955 SE-210 Caravelle The most successful first-generation jetliner, the Caravelle was sold en masse throughout Europe and America. It was built by French company Sud Aviation. 1958 Boeing 707-120 The first production model of the now-widespread 707 series, the 707-120 set a new benchmark for passenger aircraft. 1961 Convair 990 A good example of a narrow-body jetliner, the 990 offered faster speeds and greater passenger-holding capacity. 1976 Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde A standout development…

Anatomy of the Dreamliner

Gliders work by maximising the dynamic properties of air to remain airborne for long periods of time. To do this they optimise their lift-to-drag (L/D) ratio – the amount of lift generated by a wing or vehicle, divided by the drag it creates by moving through the air – by extending the surface area of their lifting surfaces, ie their wings, streamlining their physical construction and utilising the lightest possible construction materials. The glide ratio – the distance a glider falls for the distance it travels forward – of any glider is also reliant on its airspeed and the prevalence of rising air in the aircraft’s vicinity. For example, if a glider is too light then its fall rate will be low but its travel distance forward will also be low,…

Blimps keep their shape purely through the pressure of the gas inside their main hull and changes in this pressure are managed by ballonets. These are bags of pressurised air which are also located inside the main envelope and are inflated or deflated to maintain the external shape. The envelope itself is often made of man-made materials, with Mylar and polyester being common. Within the envelope – the blimp’s outer skin – there’s a second skin, commonly made from polyurethane, called the bladder. This is where the lifting gas, most commonly helium, is located. The gondola, where the passengers and crew are housed and where the blimp is controlled from, is often made of aluminium to minimise the weight of the gondola and maximise lift. Blimps are best known as platforms…

The Perlan Project

Gliders can soar without the need for engines because of currents of air around the plane that are rising faster than the glider is sinking. A good source of these updrafts is when wind strikes the side of a tall mountain. This creates a standing wave that ripples across the mountain range, and gliders are able to hang in this rising current almost indefinitely. Mountain waves don’t normally extend above ten kilometres because winds can’t cross the boundary between the troposphere (the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere) and the stratosphere – the edge of space. But there are a few places in the world where this rule is broken. In the far south of Patagonia, in Argentina, updrafts from the Andes combine in late summer and early autumn with high altitude…

The Perlan Project

On board Air Force One

Air Force One is the call sign used to designate aircraft specially fitted out to carry the president of the United States while on official business. Currently two planes carry the Air Force One name – both customised versions of the Boeing VC-25A jetliner that have been in service since 1990. Appearing like a standard airliner on the outside, Air Force One is in fact an incredibly complex aircraft, decked out with a number of hi-tech facilities that make it suitable for carrying arguably the most powerful person on the planet. Over its 372 square metres (4,000 square feet) of floor space, these include a surgery-class medical bay, a communications suite that can act as a command centre for military operations, plus a fully equipped office with satellite phone and wireless…

On board Air Force One

How to fly a helicopter

Piloting this incredible piece of engineering is no mean feat for anyone. Immense mental and physical co-ordination is required; the ability to use each hand and foot independently to operate the flight controls is a prerequisite for any prospective pilot. This means training to become a helicopter pilot takes a significant amount of time, money, training and dedication. Typically more than 1,000 registered flying hours and numerous written exams are needed if you want to fly a helicopter commercially. Advancements in helicopter technology A number of recent advancements have improved on the existing helicopter design. One of these is the no-tail rotor, or NOTAR. This functions to solve two commonly encountered problems; namely the noise made by the tail rotor and the ease with which it can be damaged. It works by blowing…

How to fly a helicopter

Ever wanted to fly but don’t have the time or money to train as a pilot? The new AirBoard could be the answer. The smallest one-person aircraft in the world, it can carry the weight of a single person using its powerful battery. The AirBoard is classified as an ultralight quadcopter aircraft and it’s small enough to fit in the boot of your car. Its thrust is provided by four high-speed electric motors that each power a propeller. The drive system is managed by an Intel processor chip that incorporates a ground collision sensor to keep the board at a set height above the ground. This system comes into its own when you take the AirBoard into the great outdoors. Designed for both urban and rural use, the quadcopter will hover…

How next-gen airships work

It makes for a breathtaking image: a near-silent goliath of an airship hovering only a few thousand metres above the Grand Canyon or the Norwegian fjords. Inside the airship’s roomy accommodations, 200 passengers enjoy their luxury air cruise, a slow but scenic tour of the world’s most impressive landscapes. This is the vision of a new generation of airship engineers and entrepreneurs who believe that dirigibles – rigid-bodied aircraft filled with helium – will be the efficient, eco-friendly transport of the future. Dirigibles already have a long history. The first manned airship flights were made more than 120 years before the Wright brothers. In the 1780s, French innovators experimented with the first hot-air balloons and hydrogenfilled blimps. In the early days, hydrogen was the preferred gas for lighter-than-air vehicles because it is…

How next-gen airships work

Exploring the outer Solar System

On 14 January 2005, the world got its first proper look of Titan. A spray of yellow stones on a sandy backdrop extending into a hazy sky, it could easily have been mistaken for a sepia-toned photograph from a desert, taken back in the Sixties. It’s not what most people would expect a land of liquid methane lakes, water-ice rocks and an average daytime temperature of -179 degrees Celsius (-290 degrees Fahrenheit) to look like. This was our first closeup of anything in the outer Solar System, however. Previously we had nothing but giant telescopes or passing probes taking photos of the four planets and their many moons but often from millions of miles away. The ESA’s Huygens probe, piggybacking NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, had plunged through Titan’s dense nitrogen and methane…

Exploring the outer Solar System

“ Japan’s Hayabusa probe was the first spacecraft to return a sample from an asteroid” Since Russia’s Sputnik 1 satellite entered space on 4 October 1957, thousands of spacecraft, including Earth satellites and deep-space probes, have launched into the cosmos. In those five decades space travel has truly come on leaps and bounds, with the development of liquid and solid fuels, and the use of solar panels and radioactive power sources among many of the impressive innovations, allowing space agencies across the planet to undertake evermore ambitious missions that would once have never been thought possible. Here, How It Works has compiled ten of the most successful missions that have advanced the field of space travel to a whole new level. 1969 Apollo 11 Probably the most well-known space mission of all time, Apollo…

The Orion spacecraft

“The crew module will use parachutes and air bags to allow a cushioned touchdown” The primary goals of the Orion spacecraft, which has been contracted to technology company Lockheed Martin by NASA, are to deliver crew and cargo to the International Space Shuttle and return astronauts to the moon after almost a 50-year wait. Orion made its first test flight in December 2014 and is scheduled to complete a lunar mission by the early 2020s. The Orion crew module is similar in design and appearance to the Apollo Command Module that first took astronauts to the moon. It is three times the volume of the Apollo module with the same 70° sloped top, deemed to be the safest and most reliable shape for re-entering Earth’s atmosphere at high velocity. The Orion module…

The Orion spacecraft

On board the SpaceShipTwo

“When it is ready, VSS Unity should achieve altitudes of over 80 kilometres” Virgin Galactic’s reusable spaceplane, SpaceShipTwo, is designed to take two pilots and six passengers on the trip of a lifetime. Made by The Spaceship Company, part of Virgin Galactic, this vessel will be carried high into the atmosphere by the jet-powered aircraft WhiteKnightTwo, before engaging its rocket engines for a brief trip out of this world. With 12 windows on the walls and ceiling to marvel at the view, and articulated seats for optimum journey comfort, it has been designed specifically with space tourism in mind. Passengers will be able to look up at the stars and down at the Earth below during a controlled flight in a spaceship that looks like a plane. After their adventure, they will…

On board the SpaceShipTwo

Voyager spacecraft

“The probes have studied all the major planets of the solar system past Mars” On 20 August 1977 Voyager 2 launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida aboard a Titan-Centaur rocket, heralding the start of one of the most ambitious deep space exploration missions of all time. Two weeks later Voyager 1 was sent up in an identical launch, although its greater speed meant that it eventually overtook Voyager 2. The list of accomplishments by the two probes is astounding. Between them they have studied all of the major planets of the solar system past Mars, in addition to some moons of Jupiter and Saturn, making countless new discoveries in the process. Now, as the furthest man-made objects from Earth, they are on their way out of the solar system. The launch of…

Voyager spacecraft

The MESSENGER probe

“MESSENGER’s mission comprises six main goals” The statistics… MESSENGER Operator: NASA/APL Dimensions: 1.42 x 1.85 x 1.27 metres (56 x 73 x 50 inches) Launch vehicle: Delta II Rocket Launch date: 3 August 2004 Orbital insertion date: 17 March 2011 Which planets have had MESSENGER flybys?: One Earth flyby, two Venus flybys, three Mercury flybys Mass: 507.9kg (1,120lbs) Power: Maximum of 640W from two solar arrays and 11 nickel hydrogen batteries Status: Collecting data in Mercury orbit as of 4 April 2011 MESSENGER, an acronym short for MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging, is a probe launched by NASA in 2004 to study the planet Mercury in our Solar System. After a journey of 7.9 billion kilometres (4.9 billion miles), MESSENGER finally entered Mercury’s orbit on 17 March 2011. Mercury has remained one of the most mysterious planets in the solar system, not…

The MESSENGER probe

Big Space Balloon

“The balloon will be almost 75 metres (245 feet) tall and, once it has expanded in the thin atmosphere, it will reach a diameter of 100 metres (330 feet)” The Big Space Balloon will be Britain’s largest high-altitude research balloon, taking experiments up to the edge of the cosmos and exploring the upper echelons of Earth’s atmosphere. Once it has been funded it will launch, carrying a capsule full of scientific experiments to study the Earth and its atmosphere, before returning to our planet and possibly being re-launched in the future. The balloon will be almost 75 metres (245 feet) tall and, once it has expanded in the thin atmosphere, it will reach a diameter of 100 metres (330 feet) and a volume of 400,000 cubic metres (14 million cubic feet). It…

Big Space Balloon

Space Shuttle payload bay

“ In the case of human payloads, these were delivered via an airlock located at the front of the shuttle” NASA’s Space Shuttle launch vehicles undertook over 130 missions during their lifetime, carrying hundreds of tons of technology into space. It had a refined system for delivering payloads to the intended target – be that simply low-Earth orbit or space stations such as the ISS – following a five-step mission profile. After liftoff, solid-rocket booster separation, external fuel tank separation and orbital insertion, the in-orbit operations could begin. In the case of human payloads, these were delivered via an airlock located at the front of the shuttle, but when dealing with inanimate cargo, that required accessing the internal storage hold, known as the payload bay. Tech and supplies were accessed by the…

Space Shuttle payload bay

Automated transfer vehicles

The European Space Agency’s automated transfer vehicles (ATVs) are unmanned spacecraft designed to take cargo and supplies to the International Space Station (ISS), before detaching and burning up in Earth’s atmosphere. They are imperative in maintaining a human presence on the ISS, bringing various life essentials to the crew suchas water, food and oxygen, in addition to new equipment and tools for conducting experiments and general maintenance of the station. The first ATV to fly was the Jules Verne ATV-1 in 2008; it was named after the famous 19th-century French author who wrote Around The World In 80 Days. This was followed by the (astronomer) Johannes Kepler ATV-2 in February 2011, and will be succeeded by the (physicists) Edoardo Amaldi and Albert Einstein ATVs in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The ATV-1 mission…

Automated transfer vehicles

Solar-powered spacecraft

“Practical solar cells only became a reality thanks to the development of new semiconductors such as silicon” When you’re launching a space probe to a distant planet, every kilogram counts. Every aspect of the design is a compromise between weight and scientific capability. With engine fuel at a premium, and batteries heavy and limited in life, solar cells – which draw their energy from the Sun itself – are an ideal way of generating power. Solar cells rely on the photoelectric effect, which causes current to flow through certain materials when they are struck by light. The effect was discovered as early as the mid-1800s, and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. It arises when individual photons of light striking a surface provide enough energy for charge-carrying subatomic electrons to break free…

Solar-powered spacecraft

Getting into space is no mean feat. Since the dawn of the Space Age we have relied on large, expensive and at times dangerous launch vehicles – namely rockets – to give payloads the necessary altitude and speed to get off our planet. Rockets use a huge amount of fuel, they’re not reusable (hence their expense) and, perhaps most importantly, they have been known to fail with often disastrous consequences. But what if there was another way to travel off our world? The holy grail of space exploration has long been to design some sort of vehicle that can launch from the ground, journey into space and return to Earth in one piece, with no expendable components and minimal risk. Space planes are one such idea that have been touted (and…

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