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How It Works Book of Aircraft May 9th, 2024 Digital Back Issue Cover

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Welcome to BOOK OF AIRCRAFT

The history of human aviation spans over a hundred years, from the first manned flight of the Wright Flyer in 1903, which flew a ground-breaking 853 feet, to the futuristic hypersonic planes that look set to revolutionize travel. Today’s aircraft are constantly evolving and being upgraded; would the Wright brothers even recognize a Eurofighter Typhoon as a descendant of their Flyer? In this new edition of How It Works Book of Aircraft, we will bring to life a plethora of modern flying machines. Find out what it takes to become a pilot for the Red Arrows and how the Supermarine Spitfire became such a successful weapon of war. Discover how commercial airliners are becoming more and more efficient and the many ways in which drones are reshaping everything from making…

Welcome to BOOK OF AIRCRAFT

Orville and Wilbur Wright were dedicated to their task of developing powered flight. Meticulously tested, the Wright Flyer was constructed in Dayton, Ohio but failed to take off on the first tests carried out on December 14, 1903. It eventually managed to get airborne a few days later on December 17 and achieved a best of 853 feet as Wilbur and Orville took turns to pilot their invention. The aircraft was launched from a short monorail track by two modified bicycle wheel hubs. The engine was very basic and worked using a hand lever that could only open and close the fuel line rather than throttle. Prior to the Flyer, the brothers created various gliders from 1900 to 1903 that were tested without great success. Eventually, they found the perfect…

In the 1960s, aviation companies had a problem. With the popularity of aviation soaring for business, recreation and industry, the supply of aircraft was struggling to meet demand. But Boeing had a solution up its sleeve; the biggest civilian airplane ever built, the 747. Built in less than 16 months by a group of workers known as ‘the Incredibles’, the design came in three variations–passenger, cargo and passenger/freighter–and was first flown in 1968. By 1970, this new breed of jumbo jet had fitted seamlessly into the world’s air traffic and silenced critics. Since its inception, the 747s have appeared in a variety of models. The 747-400 was first flown in 1988 and is a combination of the earlier freight and passenger models. It is the bestselling model. As of January…

“The most frightening attribute of the B-2 is its capacity to carry an immense payload” Commonly known as the Stealth Bomber, the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit is a ground-breaking piece of aviation. The design was a giant leap forward in aviation technology and was first flown on July 17, 1989, before joining the US Air Force’s operational fleet in 1993. Four 19,000-pound thrust F118-GE engines allow the B-2 to cruise at high subsonic speeds and was, at its peak, the largest military programme at Boeing with 10,000 people employed on the project. The engine is so state of the art that it uses a temperature control system to minimize the aircraft’s thermal signature. A strategic, long-range heavy bomber, it only achieved full operational capacity in 2003, ten years after its…

In 1971 the skies of Britain were dominated by the sound of sonic booms. These were the results of a futuristic Anglo-French project known as Concorde. After 5,000 hours worth of testing (making it the most tested aircraft of all time), it was ready. Seating 100 people, Concorde represented the next step in commercial travel. It was so fast that it still holds the record for the shortest transatlantic crossing, a blistering 2 hours 52 minutes and 59 seconds. The aircraft accomplished this by utilizing ‘reheat’ technology, which injects extra fuel at takeoff. This innovative technology helped the Concorde fly around the globe in 1992, on the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’ historic journey. It managed to complete the journey in just under 33 hours. The Concorde’s final flight was…

‘Enola Gay;’ and ‘Little Boy’. Two names that are now synonymous with changing the city of Hiroshima and the whole world forever. Named after pilot Paul W. Tibbets’ mother, Enola Gay was a B-29 bomber built under the top-secret ‘Silverplate’ programme. Part of a batch of 15 bombers, it was chosen to fly the first ever atomic combat mission. The weapon would be known as ‘Little Boy’ and was a 15-kiloton bomb. Taking off at 2.45 am local time, it arrived in Iwo Jima at 6.05 am and armed its payload. After Little Boy was dropped 11.5 miles from the detonation point, the aircraft turned to make its hasty escape. As the atomic bomb sent Hiroshima to oblivion, Enola Gay was rocked by several after shocks as it withdrew. The…

Lockheed M10 Electra

“The operation ran into trouble and Earhart and the Lockheed Model 10 disappeared” Built as a response to the Douglas DC-2 and the Boeing 247, Lockheed was one of the companies transforming commercial aviation in interwar USA. Twin engine, the plane was originally intended for commercial use and could accommodate ten passengers and two crew. Before being used by Earhart, Northwest Airlines flew the plane in its fleet in the late 1930s and it was also taken on by European and Australian firms. The aircraft’s most famous moment however, was undoubtedly its final journey. The plane used on the voyage was actually a modified version of the original model. More fuel tanks were added to the aircraft, increasing the carrying capacity and also the electronics were altered to add radio…

Lockheed M10 Electra

LZ 129 Hindenburg

In the first few decades of the 20th century, giant airships filled the sky. They were the preferred transport of the rich and famous and were particularly popular in Germany, where Zeppelin airships were all the rage. The Hindenburg was constructed solely for transcontinental transportation and after its maiden flight became the largest object ever to fly at a mammoth 7 million cubic feet. The airship finally got airborne after financial support by the Nazi Government and its maiden flight to the USA occurred on March 31, 1936. By the end of the year it had crossed the Atlantic 34 times carrying both passengers and cargo. It even had an autopilot system that could keep the ship on course in stable weather conditions. All seemed to be going well for…

LZ 129 Hindenburg

“The fighter remains an evocative symbol of the dogfights over the Western Front” Remembered as one of the greatest aircraft of the First World War, the Fokker DR.I filled British and French hearts with dread. Powerful and highly maneuverable, opposing pilots quickly learnt that it was not be taken lightly, especially when it was being piloted by Manfred von Richthofen, the German fighter ace nicknamed ‘the Red Baron’. As the war progressed, the triplane was hampered by structural issues and only 320 were produced. It could only last for a total of 80 minutes in the air on one tank of fuel and they were grounded completely for a period in the winter of 1917 when the wing attachment points were considered far too weak when in flight. Part of…

Apache Helicopter

A nightmare for tanks and ground troops alike, the Apache has revolutionized modern warfare. An immensely powerful war machine, the Apache is feared across the globe and can spring into action at any time, day or night, rain or shine. The AH-64 is a stalwart of the US and British militaries and has been used with great success in Iraq, Afghanistan and Kosovo. The Gulf War in particular saw the Apache come into its own, with the Iraqi tanks no match for a combined AH-64 and F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter assault. The gunship is effective on land, sea and air and is able to quickly respond to any skirmish, making it an ideal rapid response unit that can lead counterattacks. The design has proved so popular that it has been…

Apache Helicopter

“The design was so good that the X-1 provided inspiration for the space programme” US Air Force pilot, Captain Charles E Yeager, broke the speed of sound on the October 14, 1947, in this very aircraft. Attaining a speed of 700 miles per hour or Mach 1.06, the plane, nicknamed Glamorous Glennis after the pilot’s wife, entered the record books. The X-1 wasn’t launched in the orthodox way and was instead propelled via air-launch from the bomb bay of a Boeing B-29. The record attempt wasn’t the last of the X-1’s record breakers, though. On March 26, 1948, it reached the highest velocity and altitude of a manned airplane up to that time. A single engine, single seat aircraft, ‘Glennis’, broke all idea of a sound barrier using a liquid…

Supermarine Spitfire

One of the most enduring images of the Second World War, the Spitfire is credited with saving the British Isles from the threat of German invasion. Fast, maneuverable and with an iconic engine sound, the Spitfire combined well with the Hawker Hurricane against the threat of the Messerschmitts. The Battle of Britain wasn’t the Spitfire’s only major contribution. It served the Allies with distinction over the course of the war, becoming the most widely produced British fighter of the war. It was constantly upgraded to battle the best the Luftwaffe had to offer and fought in every theatre of the war. D-Day and the invasion of Sicily wouldn’t have happened if it wasn’t for the excellent air support the Spitfires provided. A Seafire version was created specifically for use in…

Supermarine Spitfire

Spirit of St Louis

After the Wright Brothers and their contemporaries had made flight achievable, aviators competed to take aviation to an even higher level. Charles A. Lindbergh was one of these men and in May 1927 competed for $25,000 to be the first to cross the Atlantic non-stop. French hotel owner Raymond Orteig had a great passion for flying and offered the best pilots in the world the cash prize. Lindbergh and the Spirit of St Louis were the ideal team to undertake the task. The plane had been specifically constructed for the mission and in test flights it managed to break the transcontinental record by flying from San Diego to New York in 21 hours and 40 minutes. Any item that wasn’t needed was removed so Lindbergh was forced to fly with…

Spirit of St Louis

F-35 AND THE FUTURE FIGHTERS

“Each F-35 utilizes structural nanocomposites, such as carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy and bismaleimide” F-35 Lightning II Put simply, the most versatile, deadly and technologically advanced fighter jet in the world The latest and greatest ‘black project’ from Lockheed Martin’s Skunk Works–technically referred to as the Advanced Development Programs (ADP) unit, a classified division of the company unrestrained by bureaucracy–the F-35 Lightning II is the most advanced fighter jet on Earth. It’s the first and only stealthed, supersonic, multi-role fighter. Born out of a demand to dominate the fluid 21st-century battlefield, replacing a plethora of legacy aircraft such as the F-16 and A-10 Thunderbolt II, the F-35 is rewriting the rulebook on aircraft design, capable of performing almost any possible role imaginable today–be that strike, support or reconnaissance–with greater efficiency than any…

F-35 AND THE FUTURE FIGHTERS

Anatomy of the F-35 Lightning II

“The F-35’s LiftSystem allows for the main engine exhaust to be redirected for direct vertical lift” The statistics… F-35A Crew: 1 Length: 51.4ft Wingspan: 35ft Height: 14.2ft Weight: 29,300lb Powerplant: 1 x Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan Dry thrust: 28,000lbf Thrust with afterburner: 43,000lbf Max speed: Mach 1.6 (1,200mph) Max range: 1,379mi Max altitude: 60,000ft Thrust/weight: 0.87 g-limit: +9 g Guns: 1 x General Dynamics GAU-22/A Equalizer 25mm four-barrelled Gatling cannon Hardpoints: 6 x external pylons, 4 x internal pylons Max payload: 18,000lb Armament: Air-to-air, air-to-ground, anti-ship DID YOU KNOW? The F-35 has the capability to carry and launch a B-61 nuclear bomb…

Anatomy of the F-35 Lightning II

History of multi-role fighter jets

1979 Panavia Tornado The first multi-role fighter to be produced, the Panavia Tornado–across its three variants (each providing differing abilities) –offered its owner the best of striker, bomber, interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft. 1983 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet Maybe the most recognisable multi-role fighter until the F-22, the Hornet was an all-weather, carrier-capable fighter specializing in short/medium-range bombing ops. 1988 JAS-39 Gripen Another early delta-wing, multi-role fighter, the Gripen was designed to be incredibly lightweight for a fighter and sported impressive air-to-ground bombing capabilities. It has recently been upgraded for continued use. 1996 Sukhoi Su-30 Envisioned as a fighter jet with excellent air-to-surface deep interdiction prowess (the ability to strike hostile targets at extreme range from friendly forces), the Russian Su-30 typifies multi-role designs from the mid-1990s. 2000 Dassault Rafale Marketed…

History of multi-role fighter jets

“Typhoon pilots are now linked to their aircraft by ‘electronic umbilical cords’” Arguably the main competitor to the F-35 Lightning II, the Russian-made Sukhoi T-50 is an extremely advanced, twin-engine, multi-role jet fighter that, aside from being a top-level black project (in other words, highly hush-hush), promises to deliver an insane top speed, range and payload. Power, which is titanic–267 kilonewtons (66,000 pounds of force) of thrust on afterburner–comes courtesy of two Saturn 117 turbofan jet engines. The thrust has been drastically increased since the previous AL-31 powerplant and this not only allows the T-50 to easily surpass Mach 2 (a top speed of 1,500 miles per hour) but also supercruise–continuously fly at supersonic speeds without engaging the afterburner. The reason for the twin-engine setup, as well as the supersized…

Eurofighter Typhoon

The Eurofighter Typhoon is currently one of the most agile aircraft in the world. It is so agile, in fact, that attempting to blow it out the skies is like trying to make a mile-long sniper shot in high wind. Why? It was built to be fundamentally aerodynamically unstable and, if it were not for its advanced fly-by-wire control system generating artificial stability, would be too much for even the most experienced pilot to handle. This instability, however, allows for pilots to perform some physics-bending maneuvers at just plain stupid speeds–read: upwards of Mach 2–delivering them a combative edge and helping to ensure total air supremacy. Of course, agility alone can only take you so far–especially so when the hardware needs to fulfil almost every airborne military role imaginable. Good…

Eurofighter Typhoon

AEROBATIC DISPLAYS

Anyone who’s seen the Red Arrows or the Blue Angels perform will know why many consider these pilots to be the world’s best. They execute death-defying stunts at breakneck speeds; flying low to the ground and experiencing g-forces that makes their heads feel like 44-pound balls. They manage not only to control their aircraft, but also to work perfectly in a team, pushing themselves and their aircraft to the limit. The Blue Angels–the US Navy’s flight demonstration squadron–and Red Arrows–the UK’s Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team–have very interesting origins. After World War II ended, the US chief of naval operations, Admiral Chester Nimitz, was keen to maintain the high level of public interest in naval aviation. He feared that he would lose significant amounts of funding to other areas of…

AEROBATIC DISPLAYS

Death-defying displays

“The first five Red Arrows planes (Reds 1 to 5) are the front part of the overall formation, known as ‘Enid’” Both the Red Arrows and the Blue Angels update their show routine each year, which typically lasts between 20 and 30 minutes. They prepare three different displays and choose which one to perform by examining the weather conditions. A ‘full’ or ‘high’ show will be performed in clear weather, when the cloud base is over 4,500 feet high. This allows a full, looping display to be carried out and means that even at the top of each loop, the planes will remain visible. If the cloud base is lower than this and conditions are overcast, a ‘rolling’ or ‘low’ display is performed. When the weather is particularly bad and…

Death-defying displays

DISPLAY MANEUVERS

Spitfire Reversal In recognition of the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Britain, the 2015 Red Arrows display featured them flying in the shape of a spitfire. Whirlwind The Whirlwind was introduced for the 2015 Red Arrow displays and features all nine jets performing a roll followed by a Blackbird loop. Rollbacks Red 2 will pull out of the Diamond Nine formation and perform a full 360-degree roll around Red 4 and then himself outside of Red 4. At the same time, Red 3 will perform an identical maneuver around Red 5. The difficulty here is to keep the roll as tight as possible, and to time the rolls so that they are the same speed and look the same to the crowd. Vixen Break All planes fly directly towards…

DISPLAY MANEUVERS

Inside the moves

“The high-speed crossing maneuver is much easier than rolling into formation” All of the maneuvers performed by the Blue Angels are difficult in their own way, but some of the stunts that look the hardest are actually the easiest. An example of this is the highspeed crossing maneuver, which is actually much easier to do than rolling into formation. This may look graceful, but it requires much more skill to perfect. 33 YEARS OLD AVERAGE AGE OF A BLUE ANGEL PILOT 68 NUMBER OF SHOWS IN 2015 1200 GALLONS JET FUEL BURNT PER HOUR 11 MILLION SPECTATORS PER YEAR (ABOUT THE SAME AS THE POPULATION OF GREECE) Fat Albert Every show requires a huge behind-the-scenes effort. The Blue Angels use a C-130 Hercules to carry spare parts and support the…

Inside the moves

STAYING SAFE IN THE SKY

The purpose of the Red Arrows and the Blue Angels is to thrill millions of spectators every year, but they never compromise on pilot safety. Due to the nature of their flying and the high number of shows they perform, accidents do happen, although they are less regular than they were when the aerobatic teams first performed. By studying both the pilots and the planes themselves, both teams are now aware of exactly how far man and machine can be pushed. Both the Blue Angel and the Red Arrow pilots wear specific safety equipment which enables them to perform their amazing displays with the minimum amount of danger. Combating g-forces We measure gravity in terms of how much acceleration a force applies to an object. During some of their daring…

STAYING SAFE IN THE SKY

CELEBRATING 100 YEARS OF FIGHTER PLANES

From daring dogfights over World War I France, to the computer-powered prowess of the modern era’s jet fighters, the history of aerial warfare is nearly as old as flight itself. In 1915, Dutch engineer Anton Fokker devised an interrupter gear, a simple mechanism that allowed a fixed machine gun to fire through a plane’s running propeller blades. The first plane to use this was the Fokker Eindecker, which was so effective it began what the British Royal Flying Corps referred to as the ‘Fokker Scourge’. This sparked an international race to create faster, more maneuverable and ever-more destructive aircraft. By the end of the Great War, the tactical advantages of maintaining air superiority were well established and by 1939 and the dawn of the Second World War, another leap in…

CELEBRATING 100 YEARS OF FIGHTER PLANES

Modern-day tech

Ever since the Messerschmitt Me 262, nicknamed the Swallow, first took flight in World War II, the jet age has seen fighter-plane technology soar. One key difference between the fighters of today and their ancestors is the need for flexibility. While warplanes were previously designed for specific tasks–such as fighter bombers, escort, or reconnaissance–today’s aircraft are expected to perform a range of roles, even simultaneously. For example, the Eurofighter Typhoon carries over a dozen brackets under its fuselage. This enables it to carry any combination of air-to-air or ground-attack armament, or extra fuel pods for prolonged sorties, fulfilling the potential for every combat role. With machines becoming ever faster and weapons systems leaving little to no room for error, even the lightning reactions of the hardiest flying maverick would struggle…

Modern-day tech

Evolution of the fighter plane

Almost as soon as we were able to fly, we have been inventing new ways to destroy one another in the air. Aerial combat has come a long way from pilots leaning out of their cockpits and taking pot shots at one another with pistols. War may be hell, but it has also been the ideal breeding ground for rapid growth in aviation technology. Certain milestones stand out that have shaped the modern military craft we know today; retractable landing gear, enclosed cockpits, internal weapons systems, jet engines, ejector seats, heads-up displays and more. Here, two landmark aircraft show off their innovative features, giving a sense of how they took new technology to battle. Grumman F-14A Tomcat A cat with formidable claws–in the shape of sidewinder missiles and cutting-edge avionics…

Evolution of the fighter plane

Supermarine Spitfire

Designed in the technologically fervent and innovatory melting pot of World War II, the Supermarine Spitfire became the fighter plane of the times. With its simple lines, elegant frame and superb aerodynamics, the Spitfire was to live on in the minds of generations during the war and for many decades to come. The Supermarine Spitfire was the brainchild of aeronautical engineer Reginald Mitchell, who led a dedicated and talented team of designers. Originally planned as a short-range air-defense fighter, the Spitfire was built for speed and agility, traits that it was to need in the explosive dogfights it was to partake in as it met enemy fighters and bombers. Building a fighter plane, though, is more complex than listing desirable traits however, and the Spitfire’s construction is a balletic series…

Supermarine Spitfire

Lancaster bomber

Arguably one of the most famous heavy bombers of World War II, the Avro-built Lancaster bomber undertook some of the most dangerous and complex missions yet encountered by the RAF. Primarily a night bomber but frequently used during the day too, the Lancasters under Bomber Command flew some 156,000 sorties during the war, dropping 609,000 tons of bombs. Among these bombs was the famous ‘bouncing bomb’ designed by British inventor Barnes Wallis, a payload that would lead the Lancaster to remain famed long after 1945. We take a look inside a Avro Lancaster to see what made it so successful. Inside a Lancaster bomber The statistics… Lancaster bomber Crew: 7 Length: 69ft Wingspan: 102ft Height: 20ft Weight: 63,934Ib Powerplant: 4 x Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V12 engines Max speed: 280mph Max…

Lancaster bomber

“The Sea Harrier squadron achieved this due to their high maneuverability” The British Aerospace Sea Harrier was the purpose-built naval variant of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier strike fighter, an aircraft famed for its vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) and short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) capabilities. It worked by adopting the revolutionary single-engine thrust vectoring technology of the regular harrier (see ‘Degrees of power’ boxout) and partnering it with a modified fuselage–to allow the installation of the superb Blue Fox radar system–bubble-style canopy (larger, allowing greater visibility) and a significantly improved arms load out. These factors, partnered with the aircraft carrier’s ability to launch the aircraft from its ski-jump, allowed the Sea Harrier to perform to a high standard at sea, carrying more weight, detecting enemies sooner and taking them…

“It was famed for its ability to pass the sound barrier, going supersonic in a shallow dive” The first British fighter to be fitted purely with missiles, rockets and bombs–rather than the heavy calibre machine guns relied upon in WWI and WWII–the Sea Vixen was a first generation jet fighter employed by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy. It was famed for its ability to pass the sound barrier, going supersonic when in a shallow dive (hitting a top speed of 690mph) and saw action in multiple missions in the Middle East and Africa during the 1960s and 70s. Designed to be deployed from aircraft carriers as an all-weather fighter and high-speed reconnaissance jet, the Sea Vixen worked by partnering the reinforced twin-boom tail layout as seen on…

“Since the first flight the Lynx has been continually upgraded and developed” The Westland Lynx forms the backbone of the British Army and Navy helicopter forces. Entering military service in 1978, it had already set world speed records during testing. Introduced as a utility helicopter in 1971, the Lynx is a twin gas turbine-powered, two-pilot aircraft, with advanced control systems, a four-blade, semi-rigid rotor and, thanks to the fundamental stability and unrivalled agility of the basic airframe, it has performed in almost every role imaginable. From troop transport, armed escort and anti-tank warfare with the Army Air Corps, to anti-submarine warfare and maritime attack with the Fleet Air Arm, and in many similar roles across the globe, the Lynx is used by the militaries of over a dozen countries worldwide.…

Strategic bombers

The battlefield has changed. Now, more than ever before, the theatre of war is in flux, rebuilding itself minute-by-minute, breaking down the conventional barriers of geography, geometry and time. Weapons systems are co-evolving along with defense systems at a ferocious rate, fuelled by the continued, perpetual rage of a segregated planet. The relationship between organic and inorganic matter is becoming fused, co-dependent and augmented, in order to generate the versatility demanded when fighting in the 21st century. Fluidity and reaction speed is now paramount, for if you have the inability to engage immediately on a global scale, the parameters shift and the chance dissipates. Strategic bombers are positioned at the leading edge of this technological and logistical war, built to offer the range, payload, durability and speed to engage a…

Strategic bombers

ATTACK HELICOPTERS

The modern attack helicopter is the complete military machine. Cutting through the air with titanium blades, loaded up with missiles and a cockpit full of advanced technology; they are true terrors of the sky. A tank’s worst nightmare, the rise of attack helicopters has revolutionized the battlefield. The idea of rotary wing military aircraft was first toyed with during the early years of World War II but it wasn’t until 1942 that they reached prominence. That year the US War Department proposed a new idea. It was called ‘organic Army aviation’ and, separate from the Air Corps, it was tasked with developing helicopters. Various new designs, including the revolutionary Sikorsky R-4, were created but it took until the Korean War for helicopters to really take off. Infantry and cargo could…

ATTACK HELICOPTERS

MILITARY AIRCRAFT Attack helicopters

THE TIGER The all-action attack gunship that is a key player in modern aerial warfare A heavy-hitting, relentless attack dog, the Airbus Helicopters Tiger has both the armament and performance capabilities to dominate the battlefield. During the Cold War, it was developed in order to respond to any potential attacks on Western Europe by the USSR. The subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union meant it never saw active battle service in that era, but France and Germany continued to work on the helicopter regardless. Today, the Tiger is fully equipped with innovative stealth technology, highly accurate GPS systems, and electronic countermeasures. It specializes in anti-tank missions but the Tiger’s flexibility means that it can handle a variety of roles. The image below is of an HAD combat helicopter but other…

MILITARY AIRCRAFT Attack helicopters

STEALTH HELICOPTERS

One of a military helicopter’s biggest strengths is its maneuverability. Being able to take off and land in difficult terrain, move in any direction and hover makes gunships incredibly useful in battle. However, this advantage comes at a price and the sound of the rotor blades spinning almost negates any chance of a stealthy approach. Helicopter blades are noisy because of blade-vortex interaction (BVI). Each blade rotates at such a speed that high amounts of turbulence are caused. Huge amounts of air flow around the blades as they turn and a concentrated vortex (a whirling mass of air similar to a whirlwind) is formed. As each following blade cuts through this vortex, acoustic energy and vibrations are created, resulting in the classic chopper sound. It has been a long-standing issue…

STEALTH HELICOPTERS

TYPES OF MILITARY HELICOPTER MISSIONS

Ground fire support Infantry and armoured divisions on the ground can rely on the Tiger to provide backup. The 30mm gun is incredibly accurate and can fire at a maximum distance of 6,562ft. Armed reconnaissance Day and night identification sensors make the Tiger a highly competent reconnaissance unit that can weave through tough terrain and also engage the enemy if it needs to. Amphibious operations The Tiger HAD is also a worthy adversary at sea. It was designed to be able to land on aircraft and its low maintenance requirements mean it can stay out at sea for long periods. Aerial combat The twin attack power of a 30mm turreted gun and Mistral missiles are more than a match for any other helicopter. Also on board are 32 chaff and…

TYPES OF MILITARY HELICOPTER MISSIONS

What sort of helicopter is the Blucopter? Based on an H135, the Bluecopter technology demonstrator is a light, twin-engine helicopter. It is a flying technology test bed, on which Airbus Helicopters is able to trial nextgeneration eco-friendly technologies that can be applied across Airbus Helicopters’ product line. The Blucopter is a unique, one-of-a-kind, test aircraft. How environmentally friendly and energy efficient is it? The Bluecopter allowed Airbus Helicopters to test performance and fuel management technologies (including an ‘eco-mode’, which shuts down one of the two engines during standard cruise) leading to a ten per cent reduction in fuel consumption, helping to achieve a 40 per cent CO2 emissions reduction. The demonstrator features several design measures to reduce the aerodynamic drag of the helicopter. This includes fairings for the main rotor…

MILITARY HELICOPTERS: THE NEXT GENERATION

While the Boeing AH-64 Apache and the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk are still capable gunships, even more advanced updates are on the horizon. In 2019, Boeing and Sikorsky joined forces to develop the SB>1 Defiant, going head to head with Bell and Lockheed’s rival project, the V-280 Valor, in a bid to win the right to replace the US Air Force’s fleet of UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, the aim of the Future Long-Range Assault Aircraft initiative, which is itself is part of the wider Future Vertical Lift (FVL) project. This program will see five different types of helicopter developed to replace the UH-60, AH-64 Apache, CH-47 Chinook and OH-58 Kiowa models. As well as having first-class combat capabilities, the new helicopters will embrace semi-autonomous technology and be flexible enough to…

MILITARY HELICOPTERS: THE NEXT GENERATION

Drones are being used in air forces around the world, but the future is looking much more varied for the remote controlled aircraft. There is a fast-growing industry of autonomous flight that can both help and entertain the world, from rescuing people at sea to recording awe-inspiring aerial videos. Disaster relief, for example, is a major area where drones can make an incredible difference. They can fly over the scene of an earthquake, nuclear meltdown or bomb site and capture high-resolution pictures or video to help the team on the ground organize a rescue or clean-up mission. Drones such as the Trimble UX5 could be of enormous benefit as the 2.4-gigahertz modems in the craft and the tablet can communicate over a distance of 3.1 miles, enabling mapping to take…

The agility and efficiency of these incredible machines often means they are better equipped than humans or other vehicles for humanitarian tasks. From transporting aid to spotting someone in need, there is a variety of potentially life-saving drone aircraft projects that are currently in development. One such initiative is the LifeLine Response app, a personal panic button that will summon a drone if you are in distress. If you are concerned about your safety, you can simply load the app and keep your thumb pressed on the screen or set a timer. If you get into trouble, you can release your thumb or fail to deactivate the timer, and the police will be called and a drone deployed to your location using GPS. The idea is that the drone, which…

HOW TO BUILD A PLANE

STEP 1: Design and testing Before building can begin, the aircraft must first be designed in great detail. Thousands of engineers across the world often work together to design one plane, and it can take several years to get it right. When designing an aircraft, there are four main areas to consider. First it must be aerodynamic, so that air flows around it with as little resistance as possible. To test this, engineers create computer simulations of the plane and examine how airflow and pressure will affect the body and wings when it is in flight. They then build a scale model of the aircraft and place it in a wind tunnel, where air is blown towards it at varying speeds in order to test its flight performance. Next they…

HOW TO BUILD A PLANE

The luxury of the Lineage 1000 jet

“It can seat up to 19 passengers in upper-class comfort” The best private jets offer more than just rows of seating and the Lineage 1000 includes a shower room, a double bed, a lounge and an office, a bar and almost everything else you need in a space that is three times larger than traditional business jets. It can seat up to 19 passengers in upper-class comfort and the interior has been built to include five privacy areas, Wi-Fi and real-time flight displays, all thanks to the larger space and innovative interior design. On top of this the turbofan engine technology and fuselage interior design ensure low noise for passengers. Safety has not been ignored and the pilot has a CMC (central maintenance computer) at hand to predict potential problems…

The luxury of the Lineage 1000 jet

The world’s largest passenger jet

Ferrying travelers all over the globe is an expensive business for the world’s airlines, so it makes sense that they would want to pack as many passengers as possible onto each aircraft, reducing the number of flights they need to make. Thanks to its doubledecker design, the Airbus A380 is capable of carrying up to 853 passengers at a time, if it is in a single-class cabin configuration. That’s over 150 more than the aircraft’s competitor, the Boeing 747-8. Most A380s, however, feature four separate classes, with economy and premium economy on the lower deck and the more spacious business and first class upstairs, which reduces the passenger number to 544. This is still a 40 per cent increase on the 747-8’s four-class capacity. As well as being the largest…

The world’s largest passenger jet

Solar-powered aircraft

As the search for renewable and carbon-neutral forms of energy intensifies, solar energy is leading the way in fuelling the next generation of aircraft and cleaner travel. One aircraft breaking boundaries in this area is the Solar Impulse 2. This incredible machine is set to launch a non-stop, round-the-world trip powered only by the Sun. It will do this by using 236-foot wide wings, each of which will be carrying over 8,500 solar cells, powering four electric motors and four lithium batteries. Despite this astonishing wingspan, the entire aircraft will only weigh 5,071 pounds, which is about as heavy as a large great white shark. Another major player in the world of solar powered aviation is Solar Flight. Their newest project is Sunseeker Duo, which is the only two-seater solar-powered…

Solar-powered aircraft

On board a cargo plane

Cargo planes–whether used in the private, military or commercial sphere–are fixed-wing vehicles that have usually been designed with haulage in mind or have been converted from standard aircraft. Passenger planes commonly have a specialized hold that can store over 5,000 cubic feet of freight, found on the underside of the craft. Dedicated freight planes don’t need the seats or any of the other amenities on commercial flights–that said, their design amounts to much more than a hollowed-out passenger plane. To make the most efficient use of the space available, the floor is lined with a walkway and electronic rollers that allow prepackaged pallets to be rolled back as far as possible, without the need for a forklift. Large cargo bay doors are installed to fit bigger items through and, in…

On board a cargo plane

Boeing 787 Dreamliner

At first glance the Boeing 787 Dreamliner appears to be nothing special. A new mid-sized jetliner that through its conventional design, standard power output and modest maximum range seems to, for the most part, blend in with the crowd. Just another commercial passenger jet introduced to a market hit severely by the worldwide recession. A multimillion pound piece of technology that changes nothing. But if you believe that, then you couldn’t be more wrong… That is because, as is common with most groundbreaking new technologies and ideas, the devil is in the details. Indeed, the Boeing 787 is arguably a slice of the future today, both literally (its service life is predicted to extend up to 2028) and metaphorically. The latter comes courtesy of it being the first aircraft to…

Boeing 787 Dreamliner

Anatomy of the Dreamliner

Evolution of the jetliner We select some of the high points in the development of the commercial jetliner 1945 Vickers VC.1 Viking A British short-range airliner derived from the Wellington bomber, the Viking was the first pure jet transport aircraft. 1952 DH-106 Comet The Comet was the world’s first commercial jet airliner to reach production. It was developed by the de Havilland company in England. 1955 SE-210 Caravelle The most successful first-generation jetliner, the Caravelle was sold en masse throughout Europe and America. It was built by French company Sud Aviation. 1958 Boeing 707-120 The first production model of the now-widespread 707 series, the 707-120 set a new benchmark for passenger aircraft. 1961 Convair 990 A good example of a narrowbody jetliner, the 990 offered faster speeds and greater passenger-holding…

Anatomy of the Dreamliner

HYPERSONIC FLIGHT

Blink and you’ll miss them, but you’ll definitely hear them. Hypersonic aircraft may look similar to the jet planes we’re familiar with, but these engineering marvels are completely different beasts. Able to attain speeds that would literally tear a conventional passenger jet apart, hypersonic aircraft possess unique engines, are built from advanced materials and are packed full of intelligent tech. So just how fast are they? By definition, a supersonic vehicle can move faster than the speed of sound–or Mach 1–which is 767 miles per hour, or 1,125 feet per second. But to be classed as hypersonic, planes must fly at least five times this speed–3,837 miles per hour, or 5,627 feet per second. And their speed isn’t limited to Mach 5; that’s just the beginning. We’ve already created aircraft…

HYPERSONIC FLIGHT

BUILDING A HYPERSONIC VEHICLE

Supersonic aircraft such as Concorde differed greatly from their subsonic counterparts. They had adapted wing designs and advanced engines. These changes allowed Concorde to smash through the sound barrier, which is something subsonic commercial jets were simply unable to do. The difference between a supersonic and a hypersonic aircraft is even more striking, because at hypersonic speeds the rules change completely. The previously benign air starts to become a serious problem, as aircraft moving at hypersonic speed generate huge amounts of friction. This results in temperatures hot enough to melt the frame of a standard jet, so hypersonic aircraft must be built from robust heat-resistant materials such as ceramics. And they can’t stop there, because even if they are able to withstand the heat, the pressure at low altitudes is…

BUILDING A HYPERSONIC VEHICLE

MAKING HYPERSONIC FLIGHT A REALITY

Dr Kevin Bowcutt is the senior technical fellow and chief scientist of hypersonics at Boeing. He is an AIAA Fellow, a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society, and also a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He holds BS, MS and PhD degrees in aerospace engineering from the University of Maryland, USA. Why is Boeing so interested in the hypersonic technology? Boeing is interested in hypersonic technology for several reasons, including application to missiles, aircraft, and space planes. Hypersonic airplanes may someday whisk passengers and cargo across oceans in an hour or two, enabling international day trips. Perhaps most exciting of all, reusable hypersonic space planes may make transportation to Earth’s orbit more like flying in an airplane than a rocket, and therefore much more affordable–up to 100-times cheaper.…

MAKING HYPERSONIC FLIGHT A REALITY

THE FUTURE OF HYPERSONIC FLIGHT

If there’s one lesson that we’ve learned about hypersonic flight so far, it’s that heat, weight and power are all major obstacles. Too much weight, and you can’t reach the desired speed. Too much heat, and your aircraft will melt mid-flight. And then there’s the question of how we can power our machine to hypersonic speeds and keep it there. Fortunately, solutions for each of these critical problems have been suggested–and some seriously cool aircraft have been designed in the process. Innovative engineers such as Charles Bombardier have been at the forefront of these endeavours. His envisioned aircraft, called Skreemr, would take to the skies with the help of an electrical launch system such as a railgun–so we could be bidding farewell to runways one day. A railgun is an…

THE FUTURE OF HYPERSONIC FLIGHT

HIGH-SPEED HOLIDAYS

Most of us see traveling to the other side of the globe as the trip of a lifetime. Aside from the expense, these journeys take a very long time indeed. When we have to watch hours upon hours of in-flight entertainment on long-haul flights, it feels like we’re lumbering through the air. Ever since the world lost Concorde in 2003 we’ve been content to fly within the sound barrier. But the answer to our travel woes could be to punch right through it and go faster than any passenger plane has before. By flying at the upper limits of supersonic speed and into the hypersonic speed region, we could dramatically reduce travel times and change the way we explore the world. The unique design of the aircraft has become the…

HIGH-SPEED HOLIDAYS

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