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31 Articles

EDITORIAL — CENTUM EST

The magazine you hold in your hands is the 100th issue of Ancient Warfare — not counting the handful of specials and, of course, the 'Introductory brochure' (or volume I, issue 0). There is a more factual retrospective elsewhere in this issue, but I figured a personal note was justified here. After all, I founded this magazine, and though I did not edit every single one of the 100 issues — Josho Brouwers was at the helm for 26, from issue VI.5 through X.6 — I was involved in one way or another with each and every one. Arbitrary though it is, 100 issues of any magazine these days seems like a milestone worthy of remembering. If you read my editorials and follow the Ancient Warfare podcast, you'll have seen…

EDITORIAL — CENTUM EST

Copper Age dagger unearthed in Italian cave

Archaeologists have uncovered a rare Copper Age dagger in a cave near Trieste in northeastern Italy, dating back to the second half of the third millennium BC. Leaf-shaped and measuring just under 10 cm, it features a tang for attachment to a wooden handle. It bears similarities to artefacts of the type from Slovenia's Dežman pile dwellings. The excavations at the Tina Jama Cave in Italy's Friuli-Venezia Giulia region were led by Professor Federico Bernardini of Ca' Foscari University of Venice. The team from Italy and Slovenia uncovered layers from the Bronze and Final Copper Age. Additional finds at the cave entrance include a structure made of stone slabs and blocks, dated between 2000 and 1500 BC. Archaeologists suggest it may have served as a funerary site, as fragments of…

Copper Age dagger unearthed in Italian cave

New study of indigenous Australian weapons

Researchers from Griffith University in Australia have used cutting-edge biomechanics to analyze the deadliest weapons made by indigenous Australians, highlighting their craftsmanship and efficiency in combat. The study focused on two iconic weapons: the kodj and the leangle. The kodj was part hammer, part axe, and part poker. Its design was likely tens of thousands of years old, though determining exactly when this tool form was invented is difficult as only the stone parts can survive long term in the archaeological record. The leangle was a fighting club with a hooked striking head and was used with a parrying shield, both of which were typically carved from hardwood. Using wearable instruments, the research team tracked the kinetics and velocity of strikes, analyzing shoulder, elbow, and wrist movements to determine each…

New study of indigenous Australian weapons

Site of battle that ended the Sasanian Empire identified

The long-lost site of the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah has been identified in Iraq, archaeologists claim. This was a pivotal seventhcentury clash that led to the collapse of the Sasanian Empire. Archaeologists from Durham University and the University of Al-Qadisiyah used declassified US spy satellite images and historical texts to locate the battlefield. They found it about 30 km south of Kufa in Najaf Governorate. The battle, fought in AD 636 or 637, saw a smaller Arab Muslim force defeat the larger Sasanian army. “It proved decisive for the Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia, Persia and beyond, and thus holds huge cultural significance in the Arab world,” write the researchers. The new research identified key features such as a fort and a double wall mentioned in historical accounts, including Al-Tabari. This fortress…

Site of battle that ended the Sasanian Empire identified

Iron Age woman buried with knife stuck in her grave

Among the finds being examined by archaeologists at the burial ground in Pryssgården, Sweden is a woman's grave with a crooked knife stuck straight into it. The site is believed to date to between 500 BC–AD 400, and could contain up to 50 graves, including cremation pits and stone-covered burial sites. The burial ground was referenced in seventh-century texts by priest Ericus Hemengius, who described seeing the burial mounds and hills near Prästegården from his window. Initial clues emerged during a preliminary investigation by archaeologists when human bone fragments and Iron Age artefacts, including fibulae (brooches for attaching cloaks) and a costume pin, were uncovered. One grave revealed heavy soot layers and a knife driven into the soil, suggesting ritualistic practices. The deceased may have suffered from osteoarthritis, as evidenced…

Iron Age woman buried with knife stuck in her grave

Votive plaque discovered in Roman fort in Georgia

Archaeologists digging in the Caucasian country of Georgia have uncovered a rare gold votive plaque dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus at the Roman fort of Apsarus, near modern-day Gonio. The discovery appears to confirm the presence of a temple to the deity, who was popular among Roman soldiers.The small, intricately decorated plaque, with an inscription in Greek, was found by a joint Polish-Georgian archaeological team led by Dr Radosław Karasiewicz-Szczypiorski a professor at the University of Warsaw, and Dr Lasha Aslanishvili of Cultural Heritage Preservation Agency of Ajara. Jupiter Dolichenus was originally an eastern deity from the region of modern Syria and Turkey, who gained prominence in Roman military circles. “This find is exceptional, not only for its material but also for its historical significance,” said Dr Karasiewicz-Szczypiorski. Accompanying the plaque…

Votive plaque discovered in Roman fort in Georgia

Early defensive structure found in the Netherlands

Archaeologists in The Netherlands have uncovered three 7000-year-old settlements with deep banks and ditches belonging to the Linear Banded Pottery Culture (LBK), the region's first farming communities. The discovery was made during preparatory work for a new high-voltage connection in South Limburg for transmission system operator TenneT. It includes an extraordinary prehistoric defensive structure known as an erdwerk (‘earthwork'), a deep moat used for defence. The structure in South Limburg is potentially the oldest of its kind in The Netherlands and is only the third ever found in the country. Luc Amkreutz, professor of Public Archaeology, called the find “unique” and highlighted its significance in understanding the LBK culture's final phase. The settlements feature farms up to 36 metres long, described by archaeologist Marion Aarts from the municipality of Sittard-Geleen…

Early defensive structure found in the Netherlands

Although he remains a controversial figure, Victor Davis Hanson's ideas on ancient warfare provoke strong responses – both in those who agree and in those who disagree. In many cases, however, those who disagree with his assessments would probably never have made their arguments without Hanson's own arguments to spur them on. In 2004's Ripples of Battle Hanson makes the case (in the book's sub-title) that “How the wars of the past still determine how we fight, how we live and how we think.” This is sensationalist stuff to some degree, but here Hanson explores three battles – from WW2, the American Civil War, and the battle of Delium in 424 BC to make his point. While the linkages he makes are perhaps tenuous, it is rewarding to examine how…

Roman gladiator knife handle found near Hadrian's Wall

A rare Roman knife handle, shaped like a gladiator, was recovered from a river near Hadrian's Wall in northern England, and now published. Two divers found the well-preserved object in 1997 in the River Tyne, near the remains of the Roman town of Coria on the Stanegate Road. Experts have identified the 7-cm-tall copper-alloy artefact as representing a secutor-type gladiator with its distinctive visored helmet, rectangular shield (scutum) and short sword (gladius). What makes it unique is that the figurine is depicted as being left-handed. Some Romans considered left-handedness to be unlucky. However, the portrayal may represent a specific fighter, suggested Dr Frances McIntosh, English Heritage's Collections Curator for Hadrian's Wall. Gladiators were often trained to fight unconventionally to gain an edge in the combat sport and so provide novel…

Roman gladiator knife handle found near Hadrian's Wall

100 TIMES ANCIENT WARFARE DOING THE HOMEWORK

It wouldn't be an untruth to say that it starts with an editor who “knows it when he sees it.” AW articles need to be pitched correctly for our audience. To a large degree, that comes down to a gut feeling. However, we also set up a framework to ensure that this happens. First and foremost, we made the decision to give each issue a specific theme. That is part and parcel to the story of Karwansaray Publishers — named after the silk route inn where travellers meet up at night and bring their different points of view to the topic at hand — but it also gels nicely with the need to provide more depth on a particular issue. Instead of a single article on, for example, one of…

100 TIMES ANCIENT WARFARE DOING THE HOMEWORK

THE HERO'S FATE

Once at Troy, Diomedes' aristeia takes up the entirety of Book Five of the Iliad, a boast not even paralleled by Achilles. In this book, Diomedes crosses sword and spear with mortals and gods alike, bringing down both. Yet Diomedes's skill in battle was not all he was remembered for. Often paired with Odysseus, Diomedes succeeded in numerous covert operations and prophesized tasks. These missions demanded courage, cunning, resourcefulness, and almost surgical precision. This legacy, as well as his military might and epic adventures, sculpted Diomedes into a figure worthy of worship far beyond the usual realm of Greek hero cults. Recruiting Achilles Achilles was fated to be known as the greatest of the Achaeans at Troy and the one who would break the stalemate. This almost perfect fighting machine…

THE HERO'S FATE

THE IMPACT OF POLITICAL ECONOMY MANPOWER CRISIS

While it is impossible to know for sure how societies and individuals experienced and reacted to these levers, by examining warfare through a political economy lens, military hegemony in the ancient world can be better understood as a balancing act between the high politics of state security and low politics of societal well-being. This balance was always liable to be upended, however, just as easily by domestic concerns as by foreign threats. History is replete with militarily successful polities whose leaders failed to proactively restructure state-societal relations to maintain the balance. These failures inevitably manifested themselves on the battlefield with severe, if not existential, consequences. Thining manpower, widening commitments The earliest recorded instance of a hegemon declining due to self-imposed manpower crises is the state of Sparta. In a period…

THE IMPACT OF POLITICAL ECONOMY MANPOWER CRISIS

ROMAN SOCII IN THE MIDDLE REPUBLIC ETRUSCAN STYLE

Depictions of the late-fourth and early-third centuries show men, likely from the upper class, armed exclusively as hoplites of a highly generic sort compared to Greek types. Greek helmets were in use along with local styles. Yet where their panoply is truly different is the cuirass, specifically Etruscan tube and yolk armors. During this time period they stand out with their unique lamellar pattern. Though usually assumed to be small bronze plates, some polychrome depictions seem to depict white textiles with colourful patterns. A later terracotta sculpture shows one of the men in a tube and yolk cuirass made up of cordage. In a low detail figurine this could be interpreted as metal plates. It is entirely possible that this pattern was made up of overlapping textile, leather and metal…

ROMAN SOCII IN THE MIDDLE REPUBLIC ETRUSCAN STYLE

AN INTRODUCTION TO SINGLE COMBAT HONOURABLE SCARS

The victory of the tribunus militum, an ambitious noble named Servius Sulpicius Galba, seems assured. His fierce oratory persuades legionaries to occupy the Capitol and prevent other citizens from entering the voting area. The assembly is to vote on a measure to confirm the Senate's decision to award Lucius Aemilius Paullus a triumph. Paullus had decisively defeated the Macedonians in battle at Pydna (168 BC), received the surrender of their king, and had taken an immense fortune in plunder. King Perseus awaits his final humiliation: to be paraded as the ultimate prize of war in the triumphal procession that will culminate at the great temple to Jupiter, on the very hill now occupied by the legionaries. Paullus is a stern disciplinarian of the old school and, far worse in the…

AN INTRODUCTION TO SINGLE COMBAT HONOURABLE SCARS

Lifelike copies

In the Late Republican era a new style of portraiture arose called verism. Sculpture in this style differs from the Greek example that preceded it, in that it apparently attempted to show the subject ‘warts and all'. Instead of idealising a youthful, unblemished face, the statesmen and generally men and women of stature are depicted with the wrinkles they have collected through the years. That sometimes leads to odd contrasts as seen in the so-called Tivoli general. His head is sculpted in true verism style, as an older man, who has learned the hard lessons of war, but his torso shows no signs of ageing, and looks like that of a young athlete. Undoubtedly, the idea was to exude the power of his position, but it is interesting to note…

Lifelike copies

Coragus and Dioxippus: A battle between the gods

In early 325 BC, Alexander led the storming of a city of the Sydracae (Diodorus 17.98-99), during which he was seriously wounded by an arrow which struck him in the breast. He fought on with difficulty and was eventually rescued, taken back to the Macedonian camp. While the king recovered – and it seems it was not sure he would – 3000 Greek settlers in Bactria and Sogdiana, told that Alexander had died, took the opportunity to revolt and made their way home (Diodorus, 17.99.5–6). Alexander's wound seems to have brought to the surface simmering tensions in Alexander's army. Only Diodorus (17.100.2-101.6) and Curtius (9.7.16-26) record a remarkable (and unexpected) result of these tensions – the combat between the Macedonian Coragus, whom Curtius calls Corratas (9.7.17), and the Athenian Dioxippus,…

Coragus and Dioxippus: A battle between the gods

Nearly naked horsemen

Writing about the Roman cavalry of an earlier age, Polybius notes that they fought without body armour (6.25.3). They were supremely agile and could mount and dismount with ease, but were ‘nearly naked' and thus exposed to even greater danger in battle. However, a cuirass would prevent the acquisition of glorious scars on the chest. Marcus Manlius, better known as Capitolinus for his heroic defence of the Capitol against the Gauls in 390 BC, bore 23 scars, some of which would have been gained as a teenager. Capitolinus killed and took the spoils of two opponents in single combats fought before the age of seventeen (Pliny, Natural History 7.103).…

Nearly naked horsemen

HEROIC DUELS OR MASS COMBAT? HOMERIC WARFARE

The prevalence of duels in Homeric battles has been explained in several ways. For example, it has been proposed that the masses of troops had no part to play in battle other than to serve as a place for the champions to rest after their duels. Alternatively, it has been suggested that there was either an opening round of duels, followed by a mass clash of the two armies, or that, viceversa, the two armies clashed and then separated, leaving space for the champions to duel. What these theories all overlook, however, is the relative fluidity of Homeric combat. At any one time there might be two champions duelling, another champion might be assisted by a fellow champion, while yet another might be rallying the masses to stand, in a…

HEROIC DUELS OR MASS COMBAT? HOMERIC WARFARE

LUCIUS SICCIUS DENTATUS

Dentatus joined the army at seventeen in 497 and it is likely he fought at the battles of Lake Regillus (496), Aricia (495), Corioli (493), and he went on to become Tribune of the Plebs in 454. He lived to the eve of the creation of the Twelve Tables in 451–450 (see Ancient History 6). Of his remarkable military career, Gellius adds (2.11.2) that he was awarded the golden crown eight times, the siege crown once, the mural crown three times, and the civic crown fourteen times. The golden crown was usually awarded to a centurion who had killed an enemy in single combat or stayed at their post; in which case Dentatus may have been involved in up to eight single combats throughout his career. And indeed, Pliny the…

LUCIUS SICCIUS DENTATUS

The Romans had four crowns (coronae, sing. corona) which they regularly awarded for martial valour. The siege crown (corona obsidionalis, otherwise known as the corona graminea or ‘grass crown') was the highest honour and was presented to a man who had saved the legion or the army. The civic crown (corona civilis) was regarded as the second highest honour and was awarded to a man who had saved his fellow citizens' lives or stood their ground in battle. The mural crown (corona muralis) was given to the first soldier on the wall of an enemy city and who planted a standard there. The golden crown (corona aurea) was awarded for killing an enemy in single combat or holding the ground to the end of the battle. There were other (rarer)…

Siccius' greatest hour?

In 455 BC Dionysius records (10.43.1) that the Aequians attacked Tusculum unexpectedly, had already plundered the country thereabouts and, unless immediate help was sent, the city would fall. The Senate ordered that both consuls should “go to the rescue.” A levy was summoned in the face of the opposition of the tribunes since the tribunes and consuls were at that time bitter enemies. Despite his own opposition to the levy, Siccius brought with him a cohort of 800 men, who, like himself were “past the military age and not subject to the compulsion of the laws.” Livy (3.31.2-4) has no details of this story. These men were “far superior to the rest of the army in point both of experience in action and of courage in the face of dangers.”…

Siccius' greatest hour?

SINGLE COMBAT WITH CONSEQUENCES

The year 340 BC had begun badly for Rome. Alexander of Epirus had invaded Italy in the south and the Romans' war with the Latin League, which had begun in 343 BC, continued. The Latins had also come into conflict with the Samnites further south. Ten leaders of the latin League were invited to Rome to air their grievances: they wanted equal representation since they provided half the armies fighting on Rome's behalf (the causes of the Social War had a long history). Arriving in Rome, the League leaders were advised not to make war on the Samnites since the Romans had a treaty with them (Livy, 8.5.1-3). This incensed the League leadership, especially the praetor Lucius Annius of Setia (modern Sezze, Italy), who demanded that Rome not treat the…

SINGLE COMBAT WITH CONSEQUENCES

VALERIUS, THE GAUL, AND THE INTERPRETER PROVOCAT PER INTERPRETEM

History remembers Titus Quinctius Flamininus as the brilliant victor of the battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC) and the liberator of Greece from Macedonian domination. The reputation of his brother, however, was ruined when he murdered a Gallic chief. The other Flamininus Lucius Quinctius Flamininus was consul in 192 and campaigned against the Ligures and Boii. A chieftain of the Boii deserted, presented himself at the consul's camp, and asked for protection. Drunk and seeking to impress the young scortum he had hired for the duration of the war, Lucius enquired if the prostitute would like to see the Gaul die? The boy, aggrieved at having been taken from Rome and missing a great gladiatorial spectacle, assented. The Gaul was still making his speech when Lucius grabbed his gladius and struck…

VALERIUS, THE GAUL, AND THE INTERPRETER PROVOCAT PER INTERPRETEM

Interpreters in ancient armies

Armies throughout the ancient world were often composed of troops from various regions, speaking numerous languages and dialects, such as the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC or the various contingents in both the Roman and Hunnic armies at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. However, explicit mentions of interpreters are few and far between. Yet they appear with enough frequency to suggest they were a relatively common feature of ancient armies. Hannibal, for example, used interpreters to communicate with his Gallic and Italic allies (Polybius, 3.44.5; Livy, 21.42.1, 22.13.6). At the Battle of Raphia (217 BC), the exhortations of Ptolemy IV and Antiochus III to polyglot armies were delivered by interpreters (Polybius, 5.83.7). The Persian prince Cyrus used a translator to transmit his orders to…

Interpreters in ancient armies

Interpreters and the end of the Jugurthine War

One of the lengthiest episodes involving interpreters comes during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's negotiations with king Bocchus I of Mauretania in 106 BC, during the end-game of the war against Jugurtha of Numidia (Sallust Jugurthine War 108-111). A certain Numidian named Aspar had been sent to the ex-quaestor Sulla by Jugurtha and was “in constant and familiar intercourse” with Bocchus. He had been sent not only as an ambassador but also to spy on the Mauretanian king since Jugurtha had learned of the intended meeting between Sulla and Bocchus. With Sulla too was Dabar, a loyal follower of Bocchus who had sent him to Sulla to inform him that “he was ready to do whatever the Romans desired” and to name the day and time to meet. Sulla replied to Bocchus…

Interpreters and the end of the Jugurthine War

THE END OF SINGLE COMBAT A FINAL BLOW

In their tents on different sides of the Ambracian Gulf, two opponents waited for one of them to make a move. It was 31 BC. In the unending heat of a Greek summer, with his soldiers suffering from shortages of food and fresh water, M. Antonius was impatient for action. He sent his enemy, Imperator Caesar (Octavian), a personal invitation. “In boastful language,” writes Plutarch: “Antonius matched by challenging Caesar to single combat, although he was an older man than Caesar; and if Caesar declined this, Antonius demanded that they should fight out the issue at Pharsalus, as Caesar and Pompey had once done.” (Plutarch, Antony 62.3) The young heir to the legacy of Julius Caesar was not going to risk the fate of his cause on a reckless gamble.…

THE END OF SINGLE COMBAT A FINAL BLOW

The Macedonian victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (August 2, 338) led to the creation of a new political regime, the League of Corinth. The peace was overseen by Macedonian garrisons and allied regimes. The Greeks, mostly, acquiesced to their fate. By the time of the death of Alexander in 323, however, patience with Macedonian rule was coming to an end. The Exiles Decree in spring of 324 had greatly angered the poleis. It commanded the cities of Greece readmit, re-enfranchise, and have property returned to all those who had been exiled for political reasons. The political equilibrium would be irreversibly damaged by this step. Trouble is brewing Macedon did not want to directly confront Athens, but there were more subtle methods, such as the support of local oligarchs and…

The Athenian Ephebeia

A massive change for the military forces of Athens came in Epicrates' law of 335/4 regarding the ephebeia (training for young men). A unit of 1000 epilektoi, (chosen men, hoplites) was created sometime after 360, and these men were professionals. Some men also served during 370s as peripoloi, garrisons of fortresses and border guards, probably equipped as peltasts. Yet with Epicrates' law, every man who had reached the age of eighteen now had to serve a mandatory military service for two years. The state paid for training, instructors, and provisions. Ephebes worked on their physical condition, sporting events, and military competitions such as the hoplitodromos (a race in hoplite armour), and training with hoplite arms, javelin throwing, archery, and catapult shooting. During their first year of service, ephebes were stationed…

The Athenian Ephebeia

This altar was dedicated by three soldiers of Legio xxx – Marcus Antistius Placidinius, Marcus Ulpius Aspadius, and Lucius Julius Victor – to commemorate their honesta misso (‘honourable discharge') from the Roman army. All three of the men had been signiferi (‘standard-bearers') in the legion, and each had completed a full service of 25+ years with the army. The inscription notes that the dedication was made during the consulship of Faustinus and Rufinus, allowing it to be dated to AD 210. The inscription is not addressed to a specific deity, but it may have been associated with another offering which had clearer links to an individual god. A significant military role The standard-bearers of a Roman legion played an important role in the life of the unit. Each 80-man century…

The Eagle and the Lion Rome, Persia and an Unwinnable Conflict By Adrian Goldsworthy ISBN: 978-838931964 Head of Zeus (2024) - £16.99 www.bloomsbury.com The paperback edition of Adrian Goldsworthy's latest work covers the vast history of Rome's interactions with both the Arsacid Parthian and Sasanian Persian Empires. Goldsworthy admits that he wanted to deal with these two empires together deliberately (they tend to be dealt with separately) because there are parallels and continuities in Rome's dealings with them. This creates a lengthy tome which is still, by necessity, at times cursory. Covering Rome's relations with the Parthian Empire and then the Sasanian means dealing with more than seven hundred years of complex history. The Parthian Empire was founded in the third century BC and Rome first came into contact with…

ANCIENT WARFARE readings SINGLE COMBAT IN ANTIQUITY

There are many examples of ancient warriors fighting epic duels to the death. Here are some more books and articles on that topic to check out. STATUS WARRIORS: WAR, VIOLENCE AND SOCIETY IN HOMER AND HISTORY By Hans van Wees J.C. Geiben, 1992 ISBN: 978-9050630757 Based on his PhD thesis, van Wees explores the question of ‘why men fight', focusing primarily on the Homeric epics. He reconstructs a coherent image of the world of the heroes and places the action in that world. Why men fight, in Homer at least, was a product of their society – a complex matrix of rivalry and competition, competence and proficiency, status and honour. SOLDIERS AND GHOSTS: A HISTORY OF BATTLE IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY By J.E. Lendon Yale University Press, 2006 ISBN: 978-0300119794 Lendon…

ANCIENT WARFARE readings SINGLE COMBAT IN ANTIQUITY

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